Challenges of Transportation System on Upland Rice Production: A Case Study of Ojjor Rice Producing Community in Uzo Uwani Local Government Area of Enugu State Nigeria

Rice has become one of the most important crops in the world, and now being consumed by more than 50% of the world’spopulation (World Bank, 1996). In Nigeria, rice is the most populous cereal and a major staple food whose demand is constantly on the increase owing to the growing demand by the increasing population. Nigeria is the largest producer of rice in West Africa and second largest producer in Africa after Egypt (Imolehin and Wada, 2008). However, local demand for the product has far outstripped production which has made the Federal Government of Nigeria to commence importation of rice into the country to avert hunger (Muochebe, 2021). For instance, the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources in July 2008 reported that the actual production of rice in Nigeria dropped from 3.18 million metric tons (mmt) in 1999 to 2.76mmt in 2006. Oladeebo (2006) reported that Nigeria produces only 525,000 metric tons of rice per annum, from about 1.4 million hectares of land while it consumes about 2.5 mmt per annum. Central Bank of Nigeria (2007) reported that import billon rice were $259 million, $655million, and $578 million in 2000, 2001, and 2002 respectively while $750 million was spent on importation of 2.2mmt of rice in 2007 alone.

IFPRI, (2013) attributed food crises in Nigeria to low investment in agricultural sector of economy and recommended to the Federal Government of Nigeria to formulate programmes aimed at improving food security in the country, adding that the food crisis could be resolved if Nigeria government could pay more to agriculture. The Presidential Initiative on Rice Production and Export which was launched in 2003 aimed at raising Nigeria’srice production capacity from 2.3 mmt to 5 mmt in 2006 and to 6.0 mmt in 2007 could not achieve much as desired. Umeghalu (2013) noted that some of the reasons responsible for failures of government policies and programmes aimed at fighting food crisis in Nigeria are inconsistency of government policies, lack of funding, poor infrastructure in rural areas, lack of commitment, bureaucracy and entrenched corruption in government businesses. 1.1 Upland Rice Production in Nigeria: Upland rice refers to rice grown on dry soil rather than on flooded rice paddies which depends on rainfall for moisture (Ukoha et al. 2010; Umeghalu et al, 2013). It can be grown under a wide range of rainfall regime from as low as 400mm to 4,000mm per annum. Rice can be cultivated in abroad variety of climate and soil circumstances and is produced in more than 100 nations except in Antarctica (Nguu and Aldo, 2006; Shaobing et al. 2009). Approximately more than 50% of the world'srice is cultivated in emerging nations such as Asia (Paul et al. 2009). However, O. Glaberrima rice variety is cultivated on a tiny scale in Western Africa, particularly in the inland of the Niger Delta; the Sokoto-Rima Valley and other floodplains in the extreme northern part of Nigeria. As seen in Table 1, Nigeria has the most arable land for rice cultivation in West Africa (Somado et al., 2008).

TABLE 1 TOTAL AREA OF LAND UNDER RICE CULTIVATION IN VARIOUS ECOLOGIES ACROSS COUNTRIES IN WEST AFRICA Mangrove Deep Irrigated Rainfed Rainfed Country Total area (ha)

Swamp Water lowland lowland Upland Mauritania 23,000 0 0 23,000 0 0 Senegal 75,000 6,000 0 33,750 35,250 0 Mali 252,000 0 161,280 52,920 30,240 7,560 Burkina Faso 25,000 0 0 6,750 16,250 2,000 Niger 28,000 0 14,000 14,000 0 0 Chad 31,000 0 28,520 620 1,860 0 Cameroon 15,000 0 0 14,700 300 0 Gambia 19,000 2,660 0 1,330 12,160 3,040 Guinea-Bissau 65,000 31,850 0 0 14,300 18,850 Guinea 650,000 84,500 65,000 32,500 162,500 305,500 Sierra Leone 356,000 10,680 0 0 103,240 245,640 Liberia 135,500 0 0 0 8,100 126,900 Côte d’Ivoire 575,000 0 17,250 34,500 69,000 454,250 Ghana 81,000 0 0 12,150 12,150 56,700 Togo 30,000 0 0 600 5,400 8,190 Benin 9,000 0 0 360 360 8,190 Nigeria 1,642,000 16,420 82,100 262,720 788,160 492,600 Total 4,011,000 160,440 360,990 481,320 1,243,410 1,764,840 Source: (Somado, Guei and Keya, 2008).

In Nigeria, upland rice is mostly grown by small subsistence farmers. The grain yields are generally low between 0.5 to 1.5 metric tons per hectare (mt/ha) in Africa and 1 – 4mt/ha in Latin America. Abroad variety of indigenous and enhanced rice varieties can be found in Nigeria, in particular, NERICA, which has been launched in the last two decades (Somado et al., 2008). According to Muochebe (2021), new rice varieties known as Africa Rice have now been developed and circulated by research agencies such as the National Cereal Research Institute (NCRI) and the West African Rice Development Association (WARDA).

One reason for the failure of most agricultural ventures in Nigeria is insufficient study of geographical conditions. Inadequate knowledge of climatic, soil, and vegetation data, and hydrographical conditions are some of the vital factors which make any large-scale agricultural development scheme a risk (Onwualu et al. 2006). The use of primitive implement for production such as hoes and cutlasses also contribute to low agricultural productivity. These implements are labour intensive and discourages the younger people who are energetic for agricultural production to leave the rural areas where agricultural production are practiced for urban areas searching for white collar jobs that are not there (Nwuba........). The result is that the aged and aging persons left behind to undertake agricultural productions are now too weak to farm and whose numbers are critically decreasing by the day (Onwualu et al., 2006). This has significantly been contributing to low agricultural production in the country. 1.2 Factors affecting upland rice production in Nigeria.

The high cost of modern implements like tractors, harvesters, and threshers which can aid and increase agricultural productivity prevent small farm holders to expand their farm holdings. In addition, the conservative attitudes of farmers to their primitive ways of agricultural production due to illiteracy contribute to the backwardness of mechanizing agricultural practices in the country. Most farmers find it very difficult to accept modern methods of agricultural production for fear of unknown. Many of the researches carried out by agricultural officers are not adopted by the farmers; as they believe that it is risky using the new methods which they are not sure of its success (Odigbo, 2008). Even agricultural inputs such as fertilizers, herbicides, insecticides which will enhance the growth of their crops and better crop yields are difficult to be accepted by the farmers.

Lack of marketing facilities is another reason for poor agricultural production. A farmer is discouraged to expand his production when what he has previously produced is not sold because of poor marketing facilities. He may decide to crop less hectares to avoid the loss he suffered during the previous season (Oni et al., 2009). Farmers who may wish to increase their production or improve their methods of cultivation find it difficult to obtain loans; while those who were able to obtain loans do not make proper use of them or obtain enough harvest to enhance their breaking even. However, when obtaining a loan from the banks is possible, poverty prevents farmers to provide the required security required by banks for obtaining loans. Lack of processing and storage facilities make it very difficult for farmers to process and store their products after harvest especially during rainy season production. These forces farmers to selloff their products immediately after harvesting but often, prices offered for these products at this time are generally low leaving farmers with little or no profit margin which would encourage or enable them to increase their production.

Infrastructures such as roads, electricity, and good contribute to low agricultural productivity. Farming in Nigeria is mainly carried out in rural areas where good roads are absent. This prevents the use of farm machineries when available as there is no road to take them to the farms. Electricity which is necessary for storage of most of farm products is absent inmost rural areas. 1.3 Transportation Economic and agricultural activities are primarily concerned with the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services which are of value to humans. People must use the natural resources of the earth to satisfy the necessity of life, to provide food, clothing and shelter to the teeming population of the country. Not only for these basic necessities but also to use the resources to make life more pleasant, comfortable and rewarding. However, these resources are not usually found all in one place and no location is endowed with all the resources. There is therefore need to transport some of these natural resources from places where they abundantly available to areas where they are needed but not available. Transportation has made it possible for consumption of goods or food items produced in distant places because the transportation cost is low. Foods that are produced in only certain climates and soil condition are now available almost everywhere. According to Tunde and Adeniyi (2012), transportation is a means of breaking down the spatial barrier between the production and consumption. Transportation is a vital aspect of the production process starting from gathering of raw materials, factors of production, mobility and distribution of the final product to consumers (Ijeoma and Alphonsus, 2014). Following Dorosh et al. (2009) in the study of the assessment of the implications of location and transport investments for crop production and productivity in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), by adopting his conceptual framework in which transport investments affect both the supply and demand for crop production; on the supply side, the production of crop junder production systeml in a locationi depends on the agronomic potential pj, under the production systeml in locationi, and un-observed location-specific variables (Ωi) such as output and factor prices, and available technology. Demand for a crop produced in locationi depends on the size of the local market surrounding locationi, which is in turn determined by the population, distribution of per capita incomes, and trade regime.

The effects of better transportation are assumed to take place through a reduction in the transport costs of goods and services, which raises the producer prices of crops. Reduced transport costs also lower the costs and profitability of supplying modern inputs such as fertilizers, seeds, extension services, and other technologies (Ahmed and Hossain, 1990). As lower transport costs result in a greater percentage reduction in the price of perishable and bulky items such as vegetables, the profitability of these items increases relative to nonperishable crops, (Minten and Kyle, 1999). They also discovered that the more perishable and the higher value the agricultural products, the less distance they are transported. Again, it is generally recognized that transport operating costs, are higher on rough roads than on good quality bitumen roads and generally this will be reflected in passenger fares and freight tariffs.

Transport charges and costs by conventional vehicles are not uniform. Not only are there large differences in costs between different countries for the same type of transport (particularly between Africa and Asia), there are large differences between rural short haul transport (usually carried out by pickups or small rigid trucks) and long distance interurban transport that is more often carried out by heavy tractor and semi-trailer, (Yunusa et al. 2002; Oni et al. 2009; Ijeoma and Alphonsus, 2014). The proportion of transport charges to final market price will vary with a range of factors such as commodity type, the efficiency of the transport and marketing sectors and travel distance. The impact of total transport costs on agriculture will be higher than these figures indicated because the critical factor is the relationship between transport costs and what the farmer receives for his produce at the farm gate, (Oni and Okanlawon, 2006; Ogunsanya, 1993). Both marketing margins and transport costs (including the high cost of head loading produce to the village or roadside) need to be subtracted from the final market price. The results will, of course, vary from country to country, season to season and year to year. For instance, A wide range of transport costs have also been found indifferent countries for similar types of transport operation on similar roads. This indicates that there is substantial scope for improving efficiency of transport operations in the rural areas of many countries. A comparative study of rural transport carried out in Ghana, Zimbabwe, Thailand, Pakistan and Sri Lanka in 1994-5 (Ellis and Hine, 1998) has shown that Ghana and Zimbabwe have transport charges that are two to two and halftimes more expensive than for Asian countries for comparable journeys of up to 30km. In this case data was collected from a variety of different types of vehicles including tractors, power tillers pickups and trucks.

Road investment has an important part to play in reducing transport costs; however improving short lengths of feeder roads may have little impact if no change in transport mode occurs. It has been calculated that upgrading 5km of feeder road from earth to gravel standard might only increase farm gate prices by about one tenth of one percent (Queiroz et al. 1992 ). The above analysis has largely assumed that changes in transport costs will be passed to farmers and not go to transporters, food wholesalers and retailers or the final urban consumers. Competitive transport and food marketing is required to ensure that the benefits from reductions in transport costs are passed on to farmers and to final consumers. Therefore, transportation cost is also connected with road roughness and seasonality (Oni and Okanlawon, 2006).

The price of transport is not the only disincentive to increased agricultural production. There is evidence from allover Sub-Saharan Africa that sometimes, crops remain un-harvested, or are spoiled once they have been harvested, because of inadequate supply of vehicles to transport them from the farm to the market or to the place where they would be processed.. For example, Gaviria (1991) presented evidence from Tanzania that in some regions after the 1987/88 harvest that up to 89% of harvest remained stranded with typical figures in the region of 10-40%. Additionally, an improved transport reduces operating costs to vehicle users and provides more direct and cost effective access to public utilities (World Bank, 1989). Notwithstanding that agriculture that formed the backbone of Nigerian economy until oil was discovered in the country in the 1960’shas been neglected, agriculture still plays major role in the socio-economic and political life of the country in the areas of food security, provision of raw materials for the industries, employment, and foreign exchange earnings for the country. However, regardless agricultural impact on the country’seconomy, its production is predominantly practiced in rural areas by the rural dwellers. Most of these rural dwellers are traditional peasant farmers who employ outmoded methods in agricultural practices (Umeghalu, 2013). Though their individual contribution is insignificant, but collectively they form an important bed-rock for economic life of the country which represents about 90% of food and fiber produced in Nigeria (Ajiboye and Afolayan, 2009). 1.4 Effect of Rural Transportation System on Agricultural Productivity in Nigeria.

Rural transportation can be defined as a derived demand which serves to bridge the distance between origin and destination (Tunde and Adeniyi, 2012; Ajiboye, 1995). According to Adesanya et al. 2011), transportation serves as a connector while distance is a major determinant of the intensity of relationship between various sets of phenomenon distributed in space of other sectors of the economy with agriculture inclusive in space.

The dominant mode of transport in Nigeria rural space is head portage (Adedeji et al., 2014). This form of transport persists principally because of road inadequacy and the state of disrepair of the entire rural road network especially during the rainy season. All these have serious implications on the cost and volume of products being moved on the road network (Sieber, 1999; Aloba, 1986). Agricultural buoyancy, productivity and development are anchored byroad network infrastructure, because poorly maintained road militates against evacuation of farm products to the market, or processing centers. Also so many economic benefits will accrue to areas that are linked with good network of roads. 1.5 Prevalent routes in Rural Areas in Nigeria.

There are three types of routes prevalent in rural areas of Nigeria which are bush paths, un-surfaced rural roads, and surfaced rural roads. However, bush paths are very rampant and the least developed compared with other types of routes. These bush paths link the villages with farmsteads and they are usually narrowed, winding and sometimes overgrown by weeds especially during the rainy season (Oni et al., 2009). Wherein the rural areas motorable roads exist, they are mostly of unpaved surface, narrow in width, circuitous alignment and with low quality bridges. Inmost cases, they are clad with potholes or characterized by depressions and aging (Filani, 1993). Most of the rural areas in Nigeria still have no access roads while about 90% of the rural roads which were estimated at between 130,000km and 160,000km nationwide were in poor condition (FERMA, 2003). Most rural roads deteriorate and become impassable during the rainy season, and this poses a threat to sustainability of rural socio-economic development. Tunde and Adeniyi (2012) noted that the condition of most rural roads is very poor compared with inter-urban and intra-urban roads in the country.

It could be right to say that in Nigeria, the more remote a rural area is, the lower its degree of transport infrastructural development. Availability of transport facilities is a critical investment factor that stimulates economic growth through increased accessibility, its efficiency and effectiveness (Ajiboye, 1995; Oyatoye, 1994). When these are lacking in our society, then transportation system will not be effectively utilized. These facilities include: good tarred inter-village, inter-community and inter-state roads to enhance easy conveying of agricultural products.