Eco-toxicological and Nutritional Hazards of Tembotrione: A Multi-Species Evaluation After Long-Term Use

Authors: Shobha Sondhia; Dasari Sreekanth; Deepak V. Pawar
DOI
10.25125/ijoear-mar-2026-14
DIN
IJOEAR-MAR-2026-14
Abstract

Environmental contamination from herbicide applications for weed control remains a significant concern. This study presents an ecological and dietary risk assessment of tembotrione following its long-term use in maize cultivation, focusing on potential impacts on humans, animals, and aquatic organisms. Residue levels and degradation behavior of tembotrione were monitored in soil, maize plants, and grains at various intervals post-application to estimate exposure risks. The half-life showed a positive correlation with tembotrione persistence in soil, as well as with its water solubility and volatility. Risk Quotient (RQ) values indicated a risk ranging from high to negligible for soil macro-organisms over a 60-day period, with a moderate risk at 90 days. Health Quotient analysis revealed that the risk to animal health from consuming contaminated maize straw varied from high to low. Human dietary exposure posed a relatively low risk. However, aquatic organisms exhibited moderate to high ecological risk. These findings underscore the importance of tembotrione residues and its long-term ecological footprint in agricultural systems.

Keywords
Risk assessment; Fish; Health; Macro-organisms; Pesticides; Maize cultivation; Herbicide persistence.
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Introduction

Herbicides are among the most widely used pesticides for effective weed control, with global consumption estimated at approximately 1.4 million metric tons annually (Statista, 2020). However, their frequent application has led to growing concerns, including the development of herbicide-resistant weed species, phytotoxic effects on non-target crops, and the accumulation of chemical residues in soil and aquatic ecosystems (Zhang et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2022; Heap, 2023; Sahand et al., 2021; Sondhia & Waseem, 2020; Syafrudin et al., 2021). As a result, many herbicides have been banned or subjected to regulatory restrictions in various countries (Sondhia, 2014; 2018; Zhou et al., 2019; Sondhia & Waseem, 2020; Syafrudin et al., 2021). Maize, the second most extensively cultivated crop worldwide, occupies around 193.7 million hectares with an average yield of 5.75 tons per hectare (FAOStat, 2020; ICAR-IIMR, 2022). Looking ahead, maize is projected to dominate global cereal consumption for animal feed, growing at an annual rate of 1.3%. By 2031, global maize production is expected to increase by 161 million tons, reaching approximately 1.33 billion tons (OECD-FAO, 2022).

Tembotrione is a triketone-class herbicide widely used for post-emergence weed control in maize cultivation across the globe (Christos et al., 2018; Khanna et al., 2022). Its mode of action involves inhibition of the enzyme 4-hydroxyphenylpyruvate dioxygenase (HPPD), which disrupts carotenoid biosynthesis in target weed species. The global market value of tembotrione was estimated at USD 33.4 million in 2020 and is projected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 13.6%, reaching USD 81.54 million in the coming years (Global Tembotrione Market, 2023). Chemically, tembotrione is hydrolytically stable and non-volatile (EPA, 2007; Zemełka, 2015), with a water solubility of 28.3 g/L at pH 7 (PubChem NCBI, 2023; Table 1). It undergoes transformation into xanthenedione derivatives, which exhibit greater toxicity than the parent compound (Wang et al., 2022).

Conclusion

This study provides a comprehensive evaluation of the long-term environmental and health behavior of tembotrione, a triketone herbicide widely used in maize cultivation. Under field conditions, tembotrione demonstrated rapid soil dissipation, indicating low persistence in subtropical agroecosystems. Human dietary exposure through maize grains and fish consumption consistently yielded health risk quotients below one across all sampling intervals, suggesting minimal risk. In contrast, a potential dietary risk to livestock, particularly cattle, was identified when maize plants were harvested 30 to 60 days post-application, with risk quotients exceeding one. Additionally, aquatic organisms may be temporarily affected by runoff shortly after application. While soil macro-organisms exhibited a wide range of risk levels over time, from high to negligible, this risk is mitigated by the herbicide's low volatility and limited environmental stability. Health risk assessments revealed varying degrees of concern for animals, but negligible risk for humans. Overall, the findings support the safe use of tembotrione in maize production when integrated with appropriate risk management strategies, particularly concerning livestock feeding schedules and mitigation of aquatic exposure.

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