Effect of Soil-Weed Interaction on Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) Production: A Review
Abstract
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a vital staple crop for over 800 million people globally, yet its early growth stages are highly vulnerable to weed infestation due to slow canopy development and low initial nutrient uptake. Soil-weed interactions play a central role in determining cassava growth and yield, as soil physical, chemical, and biological properties influence weed emergence, growth, and competitiveness. Climate change further complicates weed management by accelerating weed phenology and favouring drought-adapted species, potentially reducing cassava yields by up to 59% under unmitigated scenarios. Key soil factors include texture, moisture, bulk density, pH, nutrient availability, and microbiome composition, which affect both crop performance and herbicide efficiency. Dominant cassava weeds such as Cyperus rotundus, Imperata cylindrica, and Commelina benghalensis exhibit specific soil affinities. Mechanisms of interference include asymmetric nutrient competition, allelopathic effects mediated by soil microbes, and serving as pathogen reservoirs. Their aggressive growth can reduce cassava yields by 30–80% if unmanaged. Integrated soil–weed–cassava management strategies — including soil texture-specific herbicide application, cover crops, mulching, conservation agriculture, and decision support tools — enhance crop competitiveness while improving soil health. Future research priorities include microbiome-mediated allelopathy, precision herbicide application, seed bank modelling under variable tillage, soil health indices predictive of weed pressure, and climate-smart cover crop mixtures. Advancing these integrated and site-specific approaches is essential to sustainably mitigate weed impacts, improve cassava productivity, and enhance agro-ecosystem resilience under changing environmental conditions.
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Introduction
Understanding soil-weed interactions is crucial for developing resilient, site-specific weed management strategies that go beyond the prescriptive approach of simply keeping the field productive (Behera, 2024; Monteiro and Santos, 2022; Korres, 2023). Integrated strategies that manage soil physical, chemical, and biological properties are necessary for improving crop productivity, given the increasing pressures of climate change and resource limitations (Ikeh et al., 2012; Van Chuong et al., 2025; Ghafoor, 2025).
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is an important food crop that serves as a primary source of calories for over 800 million people. It is the third most important staple food (after maize and rice), consumed by hundreds of millions, and supports the livelihoods of smallholder farmers across regions from Nigeria in West Africa to parts of South America (Otekunrin, 2024; Adebayo, 2023; FAO, 2021). Despite its global economic importance, cassava is highly susceptible to weed competition during the early stages of growth due to its slow canopy development, wide intra-row spacing, and low initial nutrient uptake.
Several field studies have consistently identified the first 8 to 12 weeks after planting (WAP) as the most critical period of weed interference, during which uncontrolled weed infestation significantly reduces crop establishment and yield (Li et al., 2017; Silva et al., 2025; Adebayo, 2023; Ekeleme et al., 2004; Anikwe, 2018; Ramella et al., 2020). Conventional reviews have mostly focused on direct competition between crops and weeds for sunlight, water, and nutrients (Nath et al., 2024; Sultana et al., 2024). However, recent research emphasizes the role of soil as an active mediator in crop-weed interactions (Rojas-Sánchez, 2025; Sahoo, 2025).
For instance, soil texture influences the sorption and mobility of herbicides (Jensen et al., 2019); organic matter content affects microbial degradation of herbicide residues (Farenhorst, 2008); bulk density affects root growth and resource uptake (Adekiya et al., 2022); and the soil microbiome can influence allelopathic interactions between cassava and competing weed species (Eslami, 2025; Massenssini et al., 2014; Revillini et al., 2023). These interactive roles necessitate investigation into the complex interactions between soils and weeds affecting cassava production.
Conclusion
Soil-weed interactions have a significant and complex impact on cassava cultivation. The physical characteristics of the soil determine the specific conditions under which weeds can sprout, while chemical properties affect competition for nutrients and herbicide efficacy. Additionally, the biological characteristics of the soil influence both weed competition and disease prevalence.
The evidence presented in this review indicates that integrated approaches — such as applying herbicides suited to soil texture, using cover crops to enhance soil fertility, and implementing conservation tillage strategies — often achieve better results than single-method approaches. These combined strategies can increase cassava tuber yield by up to 14 tons per hectare while improving soil health.
Future research and extension services should focus on developing decision-making tools that combine rapid soil testing, climate predictions, and adaptive weed management strategies to ensure that cassava production remains productive and sustainable under increasing environmental and climate pressures.
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