Effects of Conservation Agriculture on Soil Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties: A Review

Authors: Akshit Yadav; Vijendra Kumar Verma; Sudhir Bhinchr; Rohan Serawat; Himanshu Harit
Effects of Conservation Agriculture on Soil Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties: A Review
DOI
10.25125/ijoear-jan-2026-34
DIN
IJOEAR-JAN-2026-34
Abstract

Conservation agriculture (CA), which rests on minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop diversification, is widely promoted as a route to sustainable intensification, yet its effects on soil are neither uniform nor immediate. This review synthesises published evidence on how CA influences soil physical, chemical and biological properties, using soil organic carbon (SOC) as a unifying thread. Where climate and soil favour biomass production and management is well adapted, CA generally improves aggregate stability, infiltration, water storage and erosion control; it raises SOC and nutrient stocks, mainly in the topsoil; and it enhances microbial biomass, diversity, enzyme activity and macrofauna. Findings are far less consistent for bulk density, pH, cation exchange capacity and soil respiration. Nutrient stratification, compaction, surface sealing, waterlogging, cooler seedbeds and weed or disease pressure can offset the gains where residue production is poor, climates are cold and wet, or systems are not locally adapted. Benefits commonly take several years to appear. CA is therefore best understood as a flexible set of locally adapted practices rather than a fixed package. Priorities for future work include strategic tillage, locally suited rotations and fertiliser management, whole-profile and seasonal sampling, and standardised soil health indicators.

Keywords
conservation agriculture no-till soil health soil organic carbon soil properties sustainability.
Download Options
Download Full PDF
Share Article
Facebook Twitter LinkedIn
Introduction

Agriculture faces a double challenge. Food production must rise to feed a population projected to grow from 7.7 billion in 2019 to 9.7 billion by 2050, yet this has to be achieved without eroding the ecosystem services that soils supply, including carbon storage, nutrient provision and regulation of the water cycle (Cárceles Rodríguez et al., 2022; Page et al., 2020). The scope for expanding cropland is limited, and existing farmland is increasingly threatened by degradation, water scarcity and a more variable climate (Page et al., 2020). Intensive conventional systems, which depend on repeated tillage, heavy machinery and high chemical inputs, are associated with greater compaction, erosion and salinisation and with losses of organic matter, nutrients and soil biodiversity, all of which weaken long-term productivity (Cárceles Rodríguez et al., 2022).

Conservation agriculture has been put forward as one of the main alternatives for sustainable intensification (Kassam et al., 2009; Lal, 2015). The Food and Agriculture Organization describes it through three linked principles: continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance, permanent organic soil cover provided by residues or cover crops, and diversification of species through rotations, sequences and associations (Cárceles Rodríguez et al., 2022). Page et al. (2020) add a practical threshold, stating that at least 30% of the soil surface should remain covered between harvest and planting and that rotations should include legumes. The approach emerged in the United States in the 1930s as a response to wind and water erosion. By 2015/2016 it was practised on roughly 180 Mha, about 12.5% of global cropland (Kassam et al., 2019, as summarised by Cárceles Rodríguez et al., 2022), although uptake is concentrated on large farms in North America, Australia and Brazil, and smallholders account for only a small share of the area (Derpsch et al., 2010).

The benefits attributed to CA include greater soil water storage, reduced erosion, improved soil quality and, in some situations, higher yields and farm income (Page et al., 2020). Many of these benefits are linked to the build-up of soil organic matter, particularly at the soil surface, which supports aggregate stability, fertility and biological diversity (Page et al., 2020). Because soil health cannot be measured directly, it is assessed through indicators that span physical, chemical and biological properties, ideally organised as a minimum data set that responds to management and relates to soil function (Cárceles Rodríguez et al., 2022).

The picture is nonetheless complicated. Responses depend on climate, soil type, baseline SOC, the amount of residue produced, the length of time since conversion and the quality of local adaptation (Page et al., 2020; Cárceles Rodríguez et al., 2022). Bulk density, pH and cation exchange capacity, for example, have been reported to rise, fall or stay unchanged, and benefits can take three to seven years to emerge, with possible yield penalties or weed problems in the transition period (Stagnari et al., 2014). In cold, wet environments with poorly drained soils CA may not succeed at all (Page et al., 2020).

This review therefore examines how CA affects soil physical, chemical and biological properties, with SOC treated as the main link between them, and considers the conditions under which effects are positive, neutral or negative. It closes with the principal constraints on adoption and the research needs for locally adapted systems.

Conclusion

The evidence reviewed indicates that, where it is well designed and adapted to local conditions, conservation agriculture improves soil physical condition by enhancing aggregation, infiltration, water storage and erosion control; strengthens chemical fertility through higher organic carbon and nutrient stocks, mainly in the topsoil; and stimulates biological activity through greater microbial biomass, enzyme activity and macrofauna. These responses are tightly linked through SOC. At the same time, effects on bulk density, pH, CEC and respiration are inconsistent, and several risks, including nutrient stratification, compaction, sealing, waterlogging, cooler soils and weed or disease pressure, can limit success where residue production is low or climates are cold and wet. Benefits often take years to develop. CA should therefore be treated as a flexible, locally tailored set of practices, supported by research, extension and institutional backing, rather than as a uniform recipe.

Agriculture Journal IJOEAR Call for Papers

References
  1. Abazi, U., Lorite, I. J., Cárceles, R. B., Martínez, R. A., Durán, Z. V. H., Francia, M. J. R., & Gómez, J. A. (2013). WABOL: A conceptual water balance model for analyzing rainfall water use in olive orchards under different soil and cover crop management strategies. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, *91*, 35-48.
  2. Aguilera, E., Lassaletta, L., Gattinger, A., & Gimeno, B. S. (2013). Managing soil carbon for climate change mitigation and adaptation in Mediterranean cropping systems: A meta-analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *168*, 25-36.
  3. Andersson, J. A., & D'Souza, S. (2014). From adoption claims to understanding farmers and contexts: A literature review of Conservation Agriculture (CA) adoption among smallholder farmers in southern Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *187*, 116-132.
  4. Andrews, S. S., Karlen, D. L., & Mitchell, J. P. (2002). A comparison of soil quality indexing methods for vegetable production systems in Northern California. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *90*, 25-45.
  5. Baldivieso-Freitas, P., Blanco, M. J. M., Gutiérrez, L. M., Peigné, J., Pérez, F. A., Trigo, A. D., & Sans, F. X. (2018). Earthworm abundance response to conservation agriculture practices in organic arable farming under Mediterranean climate. Pedobiologia, *66*, 58-64.
  6. Banerjee, T., Sharma, S., Thind, H. S., Yadvinder-Singh, Sidhu, H. S., & Jat, M. L. (2017). Soil biochemical changes at different wheat growth stages in response to conservation agriculture practices in a rice-wheat system of north-western India. Soil Research, *56*, 91-104.
  7. Baudron, F., Tittonell, P., Corbeels, M., Letourmy, P., & Giller, K. E. (2012). Comparative performance of conservation agriculture and current smallholder farming practices in semi-arid Zimbabwe. Field Crops Research, *132*, 117-128.
  8. Baumhardt, R. L., & Lascano, R. J. (1996). Rain infiltration as affected by wheat residue amount and distribution in ridged tillage. Soil Science Society of America Journal, *60*, 1908-1913.
  9. Bayer, C., Lovato, T., Dieckow, J., Zanatta, J. A., & Mielniczuk, J. (2006). A method for estimating coefficients of soil organic matter dynamics based on long-term experiments. Soil and Tillage Research, *91*, 217-226.
  10. Bera, T., Sharma, S., Thind, H. S., Sidhu, H. S., & Jat, M. L. (2018). Changes in soil biochemical indicators at different wheat growth stages under conservation-based sustainable intensification of rice-wheat system. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, *17*, 1871-1880.
  11. Bernoux, M., Cerri, C. C., Cerri, C. E. P., Siqueira-Neto, M., Metay, A., Perrin, A. S., et al. (2006). Cropping systems, carbon sequestration and erosion in Brazil, a review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *26*, 1-8.
  12. Bhan, S., & Behera, U. K. (2014). Conservation agriculture in India – Problems, prospects and policy issues. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, *2*, 1-12.
  13. Blanco-Canqui, H., & Ruis, S. J. (2018). No-tillage and soil physical environment. Geoderma, *326*, 164-200.
  14. Bockus, W. W., & Shroyer, J. P. (1998). The impact of reduced tillage on soilborne plant pathogens. Annual Review of Phytopathology, *36*, 485-500.
  15. Bonfante, A., Basile, A., & Bouma, J. (2020). Targeting the soil quality and soil health concepts when aiming for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and the EU Green Deal. Soil, *6*, 453-466.
  16. Briones, M. J. I., & Schmidt, O. (2017). Conventional tillage decreases the abundance and biomass of earthworms and alters their community structure in a global meta-analysis. Global Change Biology, *23*, 4396-4419.
  17. Bronick, C. J., & Lal, R. (2005). Soil structure and management: A review. Geoderma, *124*, 3-22.
  18. Brown, B., Nuberg, I., & Llewellyn, R. (2017). Negative evaluation of conservation agriculture: Perspectives from African smallholder farmers. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, *15*, 467-481.
  19. Bünemann, E. K., Bongiorno, G., Bai, Z., Creamer, R. E., De Deyn, G., de Goede, R., et al. (2018). Soil quality – A critical review. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *120*, 105-125.
  20. Butterly, C. R., Baldock, J. A., & Tang, C. (2013). The contribution of crop residues to changes in soil pH under field conditions. Plant and Soil, *366*, 185-198.
  21. Camarotto, C., Piccoli, I., Dal Ferro, N., Polese, R., Chiarini, F., Furlan, L., & Morari, F. (2020). Have we reached the turning point? Looking for evidence of SOC increase under conservation agriculture and cover crop practices. European Journal of Soil Science, *71*, 1050-1063.
  22. Cárceles Rodríguez, B., Durán-Zuazo, V. H., Soriano Rodríguez, M., García-Tejero, I. F., Gálvez Ruiz, B., & Cuadros Tavira, S. (2022). Conservation agriculture as a sustainable system for soil health: A review. Soil Systems, *6*, 87.
  23. Cárceles, B., Durán, Z. V. H., Soriano, R. M., Gálvez, R. B., & García, T. I. F. (2021). Soil erosion and the effectiveness of the conservation measures in Mediterranean hillslope farming (SE Spain). Eurasian Soil Science, *54*, 792-806.
  24. Castellanos-Navarrete, A., Rodríguez, A. C., de Goede, R. G. M., Kooistra, M. J., Sayre, K. D., Brussaard, L., & Pulleman, M. M. (2012). Earthworm activity and soil structural changes under conservation agriculture in central Mexico. Soil and Tillage Research, *123*, 61-70.
  25. Ceja-Navarro, J. A., Rivera, F. N., Patiño-Zúñiga, L., Govaerts, B., Marsch, R., Vila-Sanjurjo, A., & Dendooven, L. (2010). Molecular characterization of soil bacterial communities in contrasting zero tillage systems. Plant and Soil, *329*, 127-137.
  26. Chan, K. Y. (2001). An overview of some tillage impacts on earthworm population abundance and diversity – Implications for functioning in soils. Soil and Tillage Research, *57*, 179-191.
  27. Cheesman, S., Thierfelder, C., Eash, N. S., Kassie, G. T., & Frossard, E. (2016). Soil carbon stocks in conservation agriculture systems of Southern Africa. Soil and Tillage Research, *156*, 99-109.
  28. Chen, S. Y., Zhang, X. Y., Pei, D., Sun, H. Y., & Chen, S. (2007). Effects of straw mulching on soil temperature, evaporation and yield of winter wheat: Field experiments on the North China Plain. Annals of Applied Biology, *150*, 261-268.
  29. Choudhary, M., Datta, A., Jat, H. S., Yadav, A. K., Gathala, M. K., Sapkota, T. B., et al. (2018). Changes in soil biology under conservation agriculture based sustainable intensification of cereal systems in Indo-Gangetic Plains. Geoderma, *313*, 193-204.
  30. Christopher, S. F., Lal, R., & Mishra, U. (2009). Regional study of no-till effects on carbon sequestration in the Midwestern United States. Soil Science Society of America Journal, *73*, 207-216.
  31. Cooper, R. J., Hama-Aziz, Z. Q., Hiscock, K. M., Lovett, A. A., Vrain, E., Dugdale, S. J., et al. (2020). Conservation tillage and soil health: Lessons from a 5-year UK farm trial (2013–2018). Soil and Tillage Research, *202*, 104648.
  32. Dang, Y. P., Balzer, A., Crawford, M., Rincon-Florez, V., Liu, H., Melland, A. R., et al. (2018). Strategic tillage in conservation agricultural systems of north-eastern Australia: Why, where, when and how? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, *25*, 1000-1015.
  33. Dang, Y. P., Seymour, N. P., Walker, S. R., Bell, M. J., & Freebairn, D. M. (2015). Strategic tillage in no-till farming systems in Australia's northern grains-growing regions: I. Drivers and implementation. Soil and Tillage Research, *152*, 104-114.
  34. Derpsch, R., Friedrich, T., Kassam, A., & Li, H. (2010). Current status of adoption of no-till farming in the world and some of its main benefits. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, *3*, 1-25.
  35. Deubel, A., Hofmann, B., & Orzessek, D. (2011). Long-term effects of tillage on stratification and plant availability of phosphate and potassium in a loess chernozem. Soil and Tillage Research, *117*, 85-92.
  36. Doran, J. W., & Zeiss, M. R. (2000). Soil health and sustainability: Managing the biotic component of soil quality. Applied Soil Ecology, *15*, 3-11.
  37. dos Santos, N. Z., Dieckow, J., Bayer, C., Molin, R., Favaretto, N., Pauletti, V., et al. (2011). Forages, cover crops and related shoot and root additions in no-till rotations to C sequestration in a subtropical Ferralsol. Soil and Tillage Research, *111*, 208-218.
  38. Du, X., Jian, J., Du, C., & Stewart, R. D. (2022). Conservation management decreases surface runoff and soil erosion. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, *10*, 188-196.
  39. Du, Z., Angers, D. A., Ren, T., Zhang, Q., & Li, G. (2017). The effect of no-till on organic C storage in Chinese soils should not be overemphasized: A meta-analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *236*, 1-11.
  40. Durán, Z. V. H., & Rodríguez, P. C. R. (2008). Soil-erosion and runoff prevention by plant covers. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *28*, 65-86.
  41. Durán, Z. V. H., Rodríguez, P. C. R., Arroyo, P. L., Martínez, R. A., Francia, M. J. R., & Cárceles, R. B. (2009). Soil conservation measures in rainfed olive orchards in South-Eastern Spain: Impacts of plant strips on soil water dynamics. Pedosphere, *19*, 453-464.
  42. Eze, S., Dougill, A. J., Banwart, S. A., Hermans, T. D. G., Ligowe, I. S., & Thierfelder, C. (2020). Impacts of conservation agriculture on soil structure and hydraulic properties of Malawian agricultural systems. Soil and Tillage Research, *201*, 104639.
  43. Farooq, M., Flower, K. C., Jabran, K., Wahid, A., & Siddique, K. H. M. (2011). Crop yield and weed management in rainfed conservation agriculture. Soil and Tillage Research, *117*, 172-183.
  44. Fierer, N., Wood, S. A., & Bueno de Mesquita, C. P. (2021). How microbes can, and cannot, be used to assess soil health. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *153*, 108111.
  45. Fonteyne, S., Burgueño, J., Albarrán Contreras, B. A., Andrio Enríquez, E., Castillo Villaseñor, L., Enyanche Velázquez, F., et al. (2021). Effects of conservation agriculture on physicochemical soil health in 20 maize-based trials in different agro-ecological regions across Mexico. Land Degradation & Development, *32*, 2242-2256.
  46. Giller, K. E., Andersson, J. A., Corbeels, M., Kirkegaard, J., Mortensen, D., Erenstein, O., & Vanlauwe, B. (2015). Beyond conservation agriculture. Frontiers in Plant Science, *6*, 870.
  47. González-Chávez, M. D. C. A., Aitkenhead-Peterson, J. A., Gentry, T. J., Zuberer, D., Hons, F., & Loeppert, R. (2010). Soil microbial community, C, N, and P responses to long-term tillage and crop rotation. Soil and Tillage Research, *106*, 285-293.
  48. González-Sánchez, E. J., Ordóñez-Fernández, R., Carbonell-Bojollo, R., Veroz-González, O., & Gil-Ribes, J. A. (2012). Meta-analysis on atmospheric carbon capture in Spain through the use of conservation agriculture. Soil and Tillage Research, *122*, 52-60.
  49. Govaerts, B., Mezzalama, M., Unno, Y., Sayre, K. D., Luna-Guido, M., Vanherck, K., et al. (2007). Influence of tillage, residue management, and crop rotation on soil microbial biomass and catabolic diversity. Applied Soil Ecology, *37*, 18-30.
  50. Gupta, R., & Sayre, K. (2007). Conservation agriculture in South Asia. Journal of Agricultural Science, *145*, 207-214.
  51. Gyawali, A. J., Strickland, M. S., Thomason, W., Reiter, M., & Stewart, R. (2022). Quantifying short-term responsiveness and consistency of soil health parameters in row crop systems: Part 1: Developing a multivariate approach. Soil and Tillage Research, *219*, 105354.
  52. Helgason, B. L., Walley, F. L., & Germida, J. J. (2010). No-till soil management increases microbial biomass and alters community profiles in soil aggregates. Applied Soil Ecology, *46*, 390-397.
  53. Henneron, L., Bernard, L., Hedde, M., Pelosi, C., Villenave, C., Chenu, C., Bertrand, M., Girardin, C., & Blanchart, E. (2015). Fourteen years of evidence for positive effects of conservation agriculture and organic farming on soil life. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *35*, 169-181.
  54. Holland, J. M. (2004). The environmental consequences of adopting conservation tillage in Europe: Reviewing the evidence. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *103*, 1-25.
  55. Islam, R., & Reeder, R. (2014). No-till and conservation agriculture in the United States: An example from the David Brandt farm, Carroll, Ohio. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, *2*, 97-107.
  56. Johnson, J. M. F., Reicosky, D. C., Allmaras, R. R., Sauer, T. J., Venterea, R. T., & Dell, C. J. (2005). Greenhouse gas contributions and mitigation potential of agriculture in the central USA. Soil and Tillage Research, *83*, 73-94.
  57. Kahimba, F., Sri Ranjan, R., Froese, J., Entz, M., & Nason, R. (2008). Cover crop effects on infiltration, soil temperature, and soil moisture distribution in the Canadian prairies. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, *24*, 321-333.
  58. Kandeler, E., Palli, S., Stemmer, M., & Gerzabek, M. H. (1999). Tillage changes microbial biomass and enzyme activities in particle-size fractions of a Haplic Chernozem. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *31*, 1253-1264.
  59. Kassam, A., Friedrich, T., & Derpsch, R. (2019). Global spread of Conservation Agriculture. International Journal of Environmental Studies, *76*, 29-51.
  60. Kassam, A., Friedrich, T., Shaxson, F., & Pretty, J. (2009). The spread of Conservation Agriculture: Justification, sustainability and uptake. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, *7*, 292-320.
  61. Kibblewhite, M. G., Ritz, K., & Swift, M. J. (2008). Soil health in agricultural systems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, *363*, 685-701.
  62. Kirkegaard, J. A., Conyers, M. K., Hunt, J. R., Kirkby, C. A., Watt, M., & Rebetzke, G. J. (2014). Sense and nonsense in conservation agriculture: Principles, pragmatism and productivity in Australian mixed farming systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *187*, 133-145.
  63. Kladivko, E. J. (2001). Tillage systems and soil ecology. Soil and Tillage Research, *61*, 61-76.
  64. Knapp, S., & van der Heijden, M. G. A. (2018). A global meta-analysis of yield stability in organic and conservation agriculture. Nature Communications, *9*, 3632.
  65. Kurothe, R. S., Kumar, G., Singh, R., Singh, H. B., Tiwari, S. P., Vishwakarma, A. K., Sena, D. R., & Pande, V. C. (2014). Effect of tillage and cropping systems on runoff, soil loss and crop yields under semiarid rainfed agriculture in India. Soil and Tillage Research, *140*, 126-134.
  66. Laishram, J., Saxena, K. G., Maikhuri, R. K., & Rao, K. S. (2012). Soil quality and soil health: A review. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, *38*, 19-37.
  67. Lal, R. (2015). Sequestering carbon and increasing productivity by conservation agriculture. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, *70*, 55A-62A.
  68. Legrand, F., Picot, A., Cobo, D. J. F., Carof, M., Chen, W., & Le Floch, G. (2018). Effect of tillage and static abiotic soil properties on microbial diversity. Applied Soil Ecology, *132*, 135-145.
  69. Lehmann, J., Bossio, D. A., Kögel-Knabner, I., & Rillig, M. C. (2020). The concept and future prospects of soil health. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, *1*, 544-553.
  70. Li, Y., Chang, S. X., Tian, L., & Zhang, Q. (2018). Conservation agriculture practices increase soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen in agricultural soils: A global meta-analysis. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *121*, 50-58.
  71. Li, Y., Li, Z., Chang, S. X., Cui, S., Jagadamma, S., Zhang, Q., & Cai, Y. (2020). Residue retention promotes soil carbon accumulation in minimum tillage systems: Implications for conservation agriculture. Science of the Total Environment, *740*, 140147.
  72. Li, Y., Li, Z., Cui, S., Jagadamma, S., & Zhang, Q. P. (2019). Residue retention and minimum tillage improve physical environment of the soil in croplands: A global meta-analysis. Soil and Tillage Research, *194*, 104292.
  73. Limousin, G., & Tessier, D. (2007). Effects of no-tillage on chemical gradients and topsoil acidification. Soil and Tillage Research, *92*, 167-174.
  74. Luo, Z., Wang, E., & Sun, O. J. (2010). Can no-tillage stimulate carbon sequestration in agricultural soils? A meta-analysis of paired experiments. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *139*, 224-231.
  75. Mangalassery, S., Mooney, S. J., Sparkes, D. L., Fraser, W. T., & Sjögersten, S. (2015a). Impacts of zero tillage on soil enzyme activities, microbial characteristics and organic matter functional chemistry in temperate soils. European Journal of Soil Biology, *68*, 9-17.
  76. Mangalassery, S., Sjögersten, S., Sparkes, D. L., & Mooney, S. J. (2015b). Examining the potential for climate change mitigation from zero tillage. Journal of Agricultural Science, *153*, 1151-1173.
  77. Mbuthia, L. W., Acosta-Martínez, V., DeBruyn, J., Schaeffer, S., Tyler, D., Odoi, E., et al. (2015). Long term tillage, cover crop, and fertilization effects on microbial community structure, activity: Implications for soil quality. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *89*, 24-34.
  78. Mondal, S., Chakraborty, D., Bandyopadhyay, K., Aggarwal, P., & Rana, D. S. (2020). A global analysis of the impact of zero-tillage on soil physical condition, organic carbon content, and plant root response. Land Degradation & Development, *31*, 557-567.
  79. Mondal, S., Mishra, J. S., Poonia, S. P., Kumar, R., Dubey, R., Kumar, S., Verma, M., Rao, K. K., Ahmed, A., Dwivedi, S., et al. (2021). Can yield, soil C and aggregation be improved under long-term conservation agriculture in the eastern Indo-Gangetic plain of India? European Journal of Soil Science, *72*, 1742-1761.
  80. Montgomery, D. R. (2007). Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, *104*, 13268-13272.
  81. Morugán, C. A., Linares, P. C., Gómez, L. M. D., Faz, A., & Zornoza, R. (2020). The impact of intercropping, tillage and fertilizer type on soil and crop yield in fruit orchards under Mediterranean conditions: A meta-analysis of field studies. Agricultural Systems, *178*, 102736.
  82. Mrabet, R., Moussadek, R., Fadlaoui, A., & van Ranst, E. (2012). Conservation agriculture in dry areas of Morocco. Field Crops Research, *132*, 84-94.
  83. Muchabi, J., Lungu, O. I., & Mweetwa, A. M. (2014). Conservation agriculture in Zambia: Effects on selected soil properties and biological nitrogen fixation in soya beans (Glycine max (L.) Merr). Sustainable Agriculture Research, *3*, 28-36.
  84. Munkholm, L. J., Schjønning, P., Rasmussen, K. J., & Tanderup, K. (2003). Spatial and temporal effects of direct drilling on soil structure in the seedling environment. Soil and Tillage Research, *71*, 163-173.
  85. Muoni, T., Mhlanga, B., Forkman, J., Sitali, M., & Thierfelder, C. (2019). Tillage and crop rotations enhance populations of earthworms, termites, dung beetles and centipedes: Evidence from a long-term trial in Zambia. Journal of Agricultural Science, *157*, 504-514.
  86. Nunes, M. R., van Es, H. M., Schindelbeck, R., Ristow, A. J., & Ryan, M. (2018). No-till and cropping system diversification improve soil health and crop yield. Geoderma, *328*, 30-43.
  87. Nyamangara, J., Marondedze, A., Masvaya, E. N., Mawodza, T., Nyawasha, R., Nyengerai, K., et al. (2014). Influence of basin-based conservation agriculture on selected soil quality parameters under smallholder farming in Zimbabwe. Soil Use and Management, *30*, 550-559.
  88. O'Leary, G. J., & Connor, D. J. (1997). Stubble retention and tillage in a semi-arid environment: 2. Soil mineral nitrogen accumulation during fallow. Field Crops Research, *52*, 221-229.
  89. Ogle, S., Alsaker, C., Baldock, J., Bernoux, M., Breidt, F., McConkey, B. G., et al. (2019). Climate and soil characteristics determine where no-till management can store carbon in soils and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Scientific Reports, *9*, 11665.
  90. Oliveira, J., Timm, L., Tominaga, T., Cássaro, F. A. M., Reichardt, K., Bacchi, O. O. S., et al. (2001). Soil temperature in a sugar-cane crop as a function of the management system. Plant and Soil, *230*, 61-66.
  91. Page, K. L., Dang, Y. P., & Dalal, R. C. (2020). The ability of conservation agriculture to conserve soil organic carbon and the subsequent impact on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties and yield. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, *4*, 31.
  92. Page, K. L., Dang, Y. P., Dalal, R. C., Reeves, S., Thomas, G., Wang, W., et al. (2019). Changes in soil water storage with no-tillage and crop residue retention on a Vertisol: Impact on productivity and profitability over a 50 year period. Soil and Tillage Research, *194*, 104319.
  93. Pandey, D., Agrawal, M., & Bohra, J. S. (2014). Effects of conventional tillage and no tillage permutations on extracellular soil enzyme activities and microbial biomass under rice cultivation. Soil and Tillage Research, *136*, 51-60.
  94. Pankhurst, C. E., McDonald, H. J., Hawke, B. G., & Kirkby, C. A. (2002). Effect of tillage and stubble management on chemical and microbiological properties and the development of suppression towards cereal root disease in soils from two sites in NSW, Australia. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *34*, 833-840.
  95. Parihar, C. M., Yadav, M. R., Jat, S. L., Singh, A. K., Kumar, B., Pradhan, S., et al. (2016). Long term effect of conservation agriculture in maize rotations on total organic carbon, physical and biological properties of a sandy loam soil in north-western Indo-Gangetic Plains. Soil and Tillage Research, *161*, 116-128.
  96. Paulitz, T. C., Schroeder, K. L., & Schillinger, W. F. (2010). Soilborne pathogens of cereals in an irrigated cropping system: Effects of tillage, residue management, and crop rotation. Plant Disease, *94*, 61-68.
  97. Pelosi, C., Pey, B., Hedde, M., Caro, G., Capowiez, Y., Guernion, M., et al. (2014). Reducing tillage in cultivated fields increases earthworm functional diversity. Applied Soil Ecology, *83*, 79-87.
  98. Peters, R. D., Sturz, A. V., Carter, M. R., & Sanderson, J. B. (2003). Developing disease-suppressive soils through crop rotation and tillage management practices. Soil and Tillage Research, *72*, 181-192.
  99. Pittelkow, C. M., Liang, X., Linquist, B. A., van Groenigen, K. J., Lee, J., Lundy, M. E., et al. (2015). Productivity limits and potentials of the principles of conservation agriculture. Nature, *517*, 365-368.
  100. Pooniya, V., Biswakarma, N., Parihar, C. M., Swarnalakshmi, K., Lama, A., Zhiipao, R. R., et al. (2021). Six years of conservation agriculture and nutrient management in maize–mustard rotation: Impact on soil properties, system productivity and profitability. Field Crops Research, *260*, 108002.
  101. Powlson, D. S., Stirling, C. M., Thierfelder, C., White, R. P., & Jat, M. L. (2016). Does conservation agriculture deliver climate change mitigation through soil carbon sequestration in tropical agro-ecosystems? Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *220*, 164-174.
  102. Ranaivoson, L., Naudin, K., Ripoche, A., Affholder, F., Rabeharisoa, L., & Corbeels, M. (2017). Agro-ecological functions of crop residues under conservation agriculture. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *37*, 26.
  103. Repullo-Ruibérriz de Torres, M. A., Carbonell, B. R. M., Moreno, G. M., Ordóñez, F. R., & Rodríguez, L. A. (2021). Soil organic matter and nutrient improvement through cover crops in a Mediterranean olive orchard. Soil and Tillage Research, *210*, 104977.
  104. Rochette, P. (2008). No-till only increases N₂O emissions in poorly-aerated soils. Soil and Tillage Research, *101*, 97-100.
  105. Rodenburg, J., Büchi, L., & Haggar, J. (2020). Adoption by adaptation: Moving from Conservation Agriculture to conservation practices. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, *19*, 437-455.
  106. Roldán, A., Caravaca, F., Hernández, M. T., García, C., Sánchez, B. C., Velásquez, M., & Tiscareno, M. (2003). No-tillage, crop residue additions and legume cover cropping effects on soil quality characteristics under maize in Patzcuaro watershed (Mexico). Soil and Tillage Research, *72*, 65-73.
  107. Rusinamhodzi, L., Corbeels, M., van Wijk, M. T., Rufino, M. C., Nyamangara, J., & Giller, K. E. (2011). A meta-analysis of long-term effects of conservation agriculture on maize grain yield under rain-fed conditions. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *31*, 657.
  108. Sá, J. C. D., Cerri, C. C., Lal, R., Dick, W. A., Piccolo, M. D., & Feigl, B. E. (2009). Soil organic carbon and fertility interactions affected by a tillage chronosequence in a Brazilian Oxisol. Soil and Tillage Research, *104*, 56-64.
  109. Sharma, S., Vashisht, M., Singh, Y., & Thind, H. S. (2019). Soil carbon pools and enzyme activities in aggregate size fractions after seven years of conservation agriculture in a rice–wheat system. Crop and Pasture Science, *70*, 473-485.
  110. Shen, Y., McLaughlin, N., Zhang, X., Xu, M., & Liang, A. (2018). Effect of tillage and crop residue on soil temperature following planting for a Black soil in Northeast China. Scientific Reports, *8*, 4500.
  111. Sinha, A. K., Ghosh, A., Dhar, T., Bhattacharya, P. M., Mitra, B., Rakesh, S., et al. (2019). Trends in key soil parameters under conservation agriculture-based sustainable intensification farming practices in the Eastern Ganga Alluvial Plains. Soil Research, *57*, 883-893.
  112. Sinsabaugh, R. L., Lauber, C. L., Weintraub, M. N., Ahmed, B., Allison, S. D., Crenshaw, C., et al. (2008). Stoichiometry of soil enzyme activity at global scale. Ecology Letters, *11*, 1252-1264.
  113. Sithole, N. J., & Magwaza, L. S. (2019). Long-term changes of soil chemical characteristics and maize yield in no-till conservation agriculture in a semi-arid environment of South Africa. Soil and Tillage Research, *194*, 104317.
  114. Six, J., Elliott, E. T., & Paustian, K. (2000). Soil macroaggregate turnover and microaggregate formation: A mechanism for C sequestration under no-tillage agriculture. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *32*, 2099-2103.
  115. Six, J., Ogle, S. M., Breidt, F. J., Conant, R. T., Mosier, A. R., & Paustian, K. (2004). The potential to mitigate global warming with no-tillage management is only realized when practised in the long term. Global Change Biology, *10*, 155-160.
  116. Soane, B. D., Ball, B. C., Arvidsson, J., Basch, G., Moreno, F., & Roger-Estrade, J. (2012). No-till in northern, western and south-western Europe: A review of problems and opportunities for crop production and the environment. Soil and Tillage Research, *118*, 66-87.
  117. Somasundaram, J., Salikram, M., Sinha, N. K., Mohanty, M., Chaudhary, R. S., Dalal, R. C., et al. (2019). Conservation agriculture effects on soil properties and crop productivity in a semiarid region of India. Soil Research, *57*, 187-199.
  118. Spedding, T. A., Hamel, C., Mehuys, G. R., & Madramootoo, C. A. (2004). Soil microbial dynamics in maize-growing soil under different tillage and residue management systems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *36*, 499-512.
  119. Stagnari, F., Galieni, A., Speca, S., Cafiero, G., & Pisante, M. (2014). Effects of straw mulch on growth and yield of durum wheat during transition to conservation agriculture in Mediterranean environment. Field Crops Research, *167*, 51-63.
  120. Steward, P. R., Dougill, A. J., Thierfelder, C., Pittelkow, C. M., Stringer, L. C., Kudzala, M., et al. (2018). The adaptive capacity of maize-based conservation agriculture systems to climate stress in tropical and subtropical environments: A meta-regression of yields. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *251*, 194-202.
  121. Sun, L., Wang, S., Zhang, Y., Li, J., Wang, X., Wang, R., et al. (2018). Conservation agriculture based on crop rotation and tillage in the semi-arid Loess Plateau, China: Effects on crop yield and soil water use. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *251*, 67-77.
  122. TerAvest, D., Carpenter-Boggs, L., Thierfelder, C., & Reganold, J. P. (2015). Crop production and soil water management in conservation agriculture, no-till, and conventional tillage systems in Malawi. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *212*, 285-296.
  123. Thierfelder, C., Baudron, F., Setimela, P., Nyagumbo, I., Mupangwa, W., Mhlanga, B., et al. (2018). Complementary practices supporting conservation agriculture in southern Africa. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *38*, 16.
  124. Thierfelder, C., & Wall, P. C. (2010). Rotation in conservation agriculture systems of Zambia: Effects on soil quality and water relations. Experimental Agriculture, *46*, 309-325.
  125. Thomas, G. A., Dalal, R. C., & Standley, J. (2007). No-till effects on organic matter, pH, cation exchange capacity and nutrient distribution in a Luvisol in the semi-arid subtropics. Soil and Tillage Research, *94*, 295-304.
  126. Thompson, J. P. (1992). Soil biotic and biochemical factors in a long-term tillage and stubble management experiment on a vertisol. 2. Nitrogen deficiency with zero tillage and stubble retention. Soil and Tillage Research, *22*, 339-361.
  127. Usón, A., & Poch, R. M. (2000). Effects of tillage and management practices on soil crust morphology under a Mediterranean environment. Soil and Tillage Research, *54*, 191-196.
  128. van Bruggen, A. H. C., Semenov, A. M., van Diepeningen, A. D., de Vos, O. J., & Blok, W. J. (2006). Relation between soil health, wave-like fluctuations in microbial populations, and soil-borne plant disease management. European Journal of Plant Pathology, *115*, 105-122.
  129. VandenBygaart, A. J., & Angers, D. A. (2006). Towards accurate measurements of soil organic carbon stock change in agroecosystems. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, *86*, 465-471.
  130. Vanlauwe, B., Wendt, J., Giller, K. E., Corbeels, M., Gerard, B., & Nolte, C. (2014). A fourth principle is required to define Conservation Agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: The appropriate use of fertilizer to enhance crop productivity. Field Crops Research, *155*, 10-13.
  131. Vastola, A., Zdruli, P., D'Amico, M., Pappalardo, G., Viccaro, M., Di Napoli, F., et al. (2017). A comparative multidimensional evaluation of conservation agriculture systems: A case study from a Mediterranean area of Southern Italy. Land Use Policy, *68*, 326-333.
  132. Vieira, F. C. B., Bayer, C., Zanatta, J., & Ernani, P. R. (2009). Organic matter kept Al toxicity low in a subtropical no-tillage soil under long-term (21-year) legume-based crop systems and N fertilisation. Australian Journal of Soil Research, *47*, 707-714.
  133. Virto, I., Barré, P., Burlot, A., & Chenu, C. (2012). Carbon input differences as the main factor explaining the variability in soil organic C storage in no-tilled compared to inversion tilled agrosystems. Biogeochemistry, *108*, 17-26.
  134. Wang, Y., Xu, J., Shen, J. H., Luo, Y. M., Scheu, S., & Ke, X. (2010). Tillage, residue burning and crop rotation alter soil fungal community and water-stable aggregation in arable fields. Soil and Tillage Research, *107*, 71-79.
  135. Wang, Z., Liu, L., Chen, Q., & Liao, Y. (2016). Conservation tillage increases soil bacterial diversity in the dryland of northern China. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *36*, 28.
  136. Williams, A., Jordan, N. R., Smith, R. G., Hunter, M. C., Kammerer, M., Kane, D. A., et al. (2018). A regionally-adapted implementation of conservation agriculture delivers rapid improvements to soil properties associated with crop yield stability. Scientific Reports, *8*, 8467.
  137. Wortmann, C. S., Drijber, R. A., & Franti, T. G. (2010). One-time tillage of no-till crop land five years post-tillage. Agronomy Journal, *102*, 1302-1307.
  138. Wyland, L. J., Jackson, L. E., Chaney, W. E., Klonsky, K., Koike, S. T., & Kimple, B. (1996). Winter cover crops in a vegetable cropping system: Impacts on nitrate leaching, soil water, crop yield, pests and management costs. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *59*, 1-17.
  139. Ye, R., Parajuli, B., Szogi, A. A., Sigua, G. C., & Ducey, T. F. (2021). Soil health assessment after 40 years of conservation and conventional tillage management in Southeastern Coastal Plain soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal, *85*, 1214-1225.
  140. Zhang, B., He, H., Ding, X., Zhang, X., Zhang, X., Yang, X., et al. (2012). Soil microbial community dynamics over a maize (Zea mays L.) growing season under conventional- and no-tillage practices in a rainfed agroecosystem. Soil and Tillage Research, *124*, 153-160.
  141. Zhang, H., Niu, L., Hu, K., Hao, J., Li, F., Gao, Z., & Wang, X. (2020). Influence of tillage, straw-returning and mineral fertilization on the stability and associated organic content of soil aggregates in the North China Plain. Agronomy, *10*, 951.
  142. Zhao, X., Liu, B. Y., Liu, S. L., Qi, J. Y., Wang, X., Pu, C., et al. (2020). Sustaining crop production in China's cropland by crop residue retention: A meta-analysis. Land Degradation & Development, *31*, 694-709.
Article Preview
Quick Actions
Download PDF View References
Article Info
Pages
134-147