Environmental Footprint of Dairy-Based Agriculture: Indicator-Based Assessment and Mitigation Approaches

Human beings have long had an inherent tendency to conserve resources for future generations. This instinct has helped sustain nature and natural resources since prehistoric times. However, in the past two centuries, the Earth’secosystem has faced unprecedented pressure due to rapid population growth, industrialization, and urbanization. The sudden rise in population in certain regions, combined with expanding urban settlements and industrial activities, has triggered significant strain on natural resources. This situation compels us to critically examine whether our current model of development truly leads us toward progress—or whether it misguides us away from sustainability. Sustainability refers to the responsible and balanced use of resources in a manner that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It is commonly conceptualized through three interdependent pillars: economic, social, and environmental sustainability. While the debate continues over which pillar is most critical, it is now widely acknowledged that over-exploitation of natural resources today will make life more difficult for future generations. Dairy farm sustainability issues are often categorized as either economic, environmental or social (von Keyserlingk et al., 2013) However, how to precisely define, how to measure, and how to operationalize sustainable development in various societal domains remain a work in progress within the scientific community (Gibbes et al., 2020; Ruggerio, 2021). In simpler terms, sustainability represents an informal contract between the current and future generations, ensuring that resources are preserved in their current form and availability for continued use. India became the most populous country in the world in 2023, and its population is projected to grow further at least until 2050. Simultaneously, India is undergoing rapid urbanization. Projections indicate that by 2046, more than half of its population will live in urban areas. This demographic shift will significantly intensify the demand for limited resources, particularly food, water, and energy. The present moment is critical to reflect on whether our development trajectory aligns with the principles of sustainability. According to the United Nations, global food demand is expected to double by 2050, driven by arising population—from 7.6 billion in 2017 to 8.6 billion by 2030, 9.8 billion by 2050, and more than 11.2 billion by 2100. In front of tremendous changes in world population, arable land availability and all global climate activities must be directed to increase the overall food production by almost 70 % by 2050, corresponding to an annual increase of 1.75 % in productivity to meet the future demand (Global Harvest Initiative. 2010). Only by following the principles of sustainability (Devendra, 2001) the most countries have a realistic chance to reach by 2050 the goal to produce demand related quantities of food. Agricultural systems worldwide must respond to this surge in demand by increasing food production—while doing so in ways that are nutritious, healthy, and environmentally sustainable. The dairy sector, in particular, faces both opportunities and challenges in this regard. Dairy farming has historically been an integral part of human civilization, deeply embedded in social, cultural, and economic systems across the globe. Today, the growing emphasis on food and nutrition security has further increased the importance of dairy products. Milk and its derivatives are now essential dietary staples, found in nearly every household and kitchen. Dairy farming has rapidly intensified over the past 50 years (FAO 2018a). Current modes of dairy intensification are widely recognized to generate negative impacts along multiple dimensions: the environment (Del Prado et al. 2013), animal welfare (Koeck et al. 2014), human health (Westhoek et al. 2014), and rural livelihoods and well-being (Flaten 2002). Sustainable intensification, in brief, denotes an aim of increasing productivity while simultaneously decreasing the negative environmental effects of conventional farming practices (Garnett et al. 2013).

India, as the world’slargest milk producer, contributes approximately 25% of global milk production. Meeting future demands, given India’sgrowing population and consumption, will require a significant transformation of dairy practices. While dairy farming is well-integrated into rural livelihoods and contributes substantially to the national economy, its environmental consequences remain underappreciated.

The sustainability of dairy production systems is being undermined by several environmental challenges. These include greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, water usage and contamination, and land degradation. As Hossain et al. (2025) note, such impacts threaten long-term ecological stability, while Basaragi and Kadam (2024) suggest that climate-smart practices and value-added dairy products offer potential pathways to sustainability. To preserve this fragile ecosystem, instead, there is a need to develop a dairy farming system which must be sustainable for the animal and the environment and economically feasible (Cozzi and Bizzotto, 2004). In 2015, global milk production reached 666.5 billion kilograms, an increase of 30% from 2005 levels. This increase led to an 18% rise in GHG emissions, primarily due to methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), and carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions (FAO, 2019). The marked changes in our environment (e.g., climate, soil degradation, water quality and availability, deforestation, greenhouse gas emissions, waste quantity, biodiversity) indicate that conventional farming, at least to some extent, should be changed to sustainable production systems (Hamann, 2017). Dairy farming is also one of the most water-intensive food industries, contributing significantly to water pollution. Meena (2018) highlights the dairy industry’srole in emitting harmful gases and degrading water quality. Furthermore, research by de Vries and de Boer (2010), and Milani et al. (2011) indicates that livestock production—including feed cultivation, transport, processing, and consumption—has a disproportionately large impact on climate change.

The environmental sustainability of dairy practices varies significantly across regions. A study by Singh et al. (2024) found that milk production in Punjabis more environmentally efficient than in Rajasthan. The study highlights cattle feed as a major contributor to environmental impacts, along with the choice of packaging materials used for processed milk. Achieving synergy between economic viability and ecological sustainability represents a fundamental challenge and opportunity for the dairy industry (Britt et al., 2018).

Dairy cattle, in particular, affect the environment through their emissions and waste products. According to Naranjo et al. (2020), these impacts extend across air, water, and land systems. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB, 2020) reports that a single bovine animal weighing around 400 kg produces approximately 15–20 kg of dung and 15–20 liters of urine per day—contributing to substantial environmental burdens when scaled across herds. It is also observed that only very few studies in India have addressed the environmental aspects of milk production, out of which one published study is from Anand Gujrat for the accounting carbon footprint of milk production by small farmers (Garg et al., 2016). Milk is a staple food, and its environmental impact study can guide the policymakers to devise eco-efficient policy for sustainable growth. Assessing the sustainability of milk production in India (the largest milk producer country in the world) is essential to ensure that the dairy industry can meet the growing demands for dairy products while minimizing its negative impact on the environment, society, and the well-being of the people involved in the sector (Singh et al. 2024). The sustainability indicators are composed of different indicators, such as: environmental (air quality, water quality, energy consumption), social (quality of life, well-being, income distribution), and economic (consumption and production pattern, liquidity), and can act jointly, forming indexes, or separately, in the three spheres that comprise sustainability (Goswami et al., 2017, Rawlikowska et al.,2019 and Mandart et al.,2019). Sustainability is a concept and cannot be measured directly. Appropriate indicators must be selected to determine levels and duration of sustainability (Zinck and Farshad, 1995). To address sustainability challenges in agriculture, private and multi-stakeholder initiatives increasingly use sustainability indicators to monitor the sustainability impact of farms. These indicators can be part of standards for certification or assessment tools to measure farm performance. While these initiatives play an important role in navigating the sustainability transition, insight in how these governance initiatives operationalize sustainability in crop farming is lacking (Konefal et al., 2023)

In light of the environmental sustainability challenges associated with dairy farming, the present study was undertaken in the hilly state of Uttarakhand, India. The objectives of the study are: 1. To identify key environmental sustainability indicators relevant to dairy farming. 2. To assess these sustainability indicators in the context of hill farming systems. 3. To propose practical strategies and approaches for enhancing the environmental sustainability of dairy farming.