Gender Differences in Access to Agricultural Extension Services among Smallholder Farmers in Ibadan, Oyo State
Abstract
This study examined gender differences in access to agricultural extension services among smallholder farmers in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. A multistage sampling technique was used to select 300 respondents—170 males and 130 females. The socio-economic analysis revealed that male farmers possessed greater resource endowment and institutional linkages than females. The mean age of male farmers was 45.8 years compared to 43.2 years for females, with average farming experience of 14.6 and 11.8 years, respectively. Male farmers cultivated larger farms (2.7 ha) and showed higher educational attainment (60%) and cooperative membership (60%) than females (1.9 ha; 50.7% and 44.6%). Gender disparities in extension access were evident, as males recorded higher mean scores for visitation and training (MS = 4.06– 4.17) compared to females (MS = 2.24 for both). Regression results (R² = 0.612; Adjusted R² = 0.586; F = 23.47, p < 0.001) showed education, farm size, cooperative membership, and credit access as significant determinants, while household size was not significant. Male farmers achieved higher productivity (MS = 4.21) and income (MS = 4.27) than females (MS = 3.61; 3.31). Exploratory factor analysis identified five constraint dimensions explaining 68.34% of variance—socio-cultural barriers (19.27%), institutional capacity (16.21%), economic constraints (12.40%), information accessibility (10.56%), and time-distance constraints (9.90%). High KMO (0.847) and Bartlett's χ² (3,528.94, p < 0.001) confirmed model adequacy. The findings underscore persistent gender inequities rooted in socio-cultural, institutional, and economic barriers limiting women's participation in extension programs.
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Introduction
Agriculture remains the backbone of Nigeria's rural economy, employing over 70% of the labour force and contributing significantly to national food security. Within this sector, smallholder farmers play a crucial role, producing the majority of the country's staple crops, yet they continue to face structural inequalities that limit productivity and sustainability. Gender is one of the most prominent axes of disparity, influencing access to agricultural inputs, markets, land, credit, and particularly, extension services (Oyediji et al., 2025a). Agricultural extension services—comprising the dissemination of knowledge, technology transfer, and capacity building—are vital for improving farm productivity and resilience to climate change. However, multiple studies reveal that female smallholders in Nigeria systematically receive less access to such services compared to their male counterparts, due to socio-cultural norms, limited mobility, lower educational attainment, and institutional biases in extension programs (Adesiji et al., 2023; Bello et al., 2021).
Conclusion
This study examined gender differences in access to agricultural extension services among smallholder farmers in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, revealing that gender significantly influences participation, access, and benefits from extension programs. Socio-economic analysis showed that male farmers generally possessed greater resource endowment and institutional linkages than females. The mean age of males was 45.8 years, slightly higher than females at 43.2 years, with average farming experience of 14.6 and 11.8 years, respectively. Male farmers cultivated larger farms (2.7 hectares versus 1.9 hectares), and had higher educational attainment and cooperative membership—60% of men had secondary education or above compared to 50.7% of women, and 60% of men belonged to cooperatives versus 44.6% of women.
Gender differences in extension access were evident. Male farmers reported higher mean scores for visitation and training (MS = 4.06–4.17) than females (MS = 2.24 for both). Similarly, male farmers reported higher access to digital platforms and input distribution programs (MS = 3.98–4.20) than females (MS = 2.64–2.39). This confirms that extension systems remain predominantly male-oriented, often neglecting women's specific needs.
Multiple regression analysis identified education, farm size, cooperative membership, and access to credit as significant predictors of extension access, explaining 61.2% of variance (R² = 0.612; Adjusted R² = 0.586; F = 23.47, p < 0.001). Educational level, farm size, and contact with extension agents were highly significant at the 1% level. Age, farming experience, and access to credit were significant at the 5% level. Marital status and cooperative membership were moderately significant (10%) while household size was not significant, indicating minimal impact on extension accessibility. This suggests that structural and economic factors outweigh demographic characteristics in determining access.
Analysis of the impact of differential access on productivity and income revealed that male farmers reported stronger gains than females. Male farmers achieved higher mean scores for productivity (MS = 4.21) and income (MS = 4.27), compared to female farmers with mean scores of 3.61 and 3.31, respectively. The disparity reflects how greater access to extension translates into tangible economic advantages for men.
Exploratory factor analysis further clarified multidimensional challenges shaping gendered access. Five factors explained 68.34% of variance: socio-cultural barriers (19.27%), institutional capacity (16.21%), economic constraints (12.40%), information accessibility (10.56%), and time and distance constraints (9.90%). The KMO value (0.847) and Bartlett's test (χ² = 3,528.94, p < 0.001) confirmed data suitability. High factor loadings under socio-cultural barriers—cultural norms (0.842), religious restrictions (0.816), and lack of female agents (0.721)—illustrated how patriarchal norms restrict women's mobility and participation. Institutional weaknesses (personnel 0.831; funding 0.807), economic constraints (credit 0.824; transport 0.688), information barriers (infrastructure 0.847), and time constraints (domestic workload 0.791) highlighted additional gender-specific obstacles.
The findings confirm that gender disparities in extension access are not merely individual-level phenomena but are embedded within socio-cultural, institutional, and economic structures. Addressing these disparities requires transformative approaches that go beyond simply including women in existing programs to fundamentally rethinking how extension services are designed, delivered, and evaluated.
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