The Impacts of Mining on Livelihood and Development in Nyoenpaling Chiwog under Phuntshopelri Gewog, Samtse

In recent years, there has been growing concern about mining activities' social, economic, and environmental impacts on the locality. The impact of mining on the locality has been a subject of research for decades, with numerous studies examining the environmental, social, and economic impacts of mining activities. The study focuses on the specific case of Nyoenpaling Chiwog, Bhutan, where mining activities have been increasing in recent years. The research aims to explore the impacts of mining on local communities and their livelihoods, as well as the potential effects on overall development in the region. The study utilized both qualitative and quantitative research methods, including interviews with residents and stakeholders’ surveys, and data analysis was carried out. The study explored the potential benefits and drawbacks of mining for the local economy, environment, and social dynamics. The study also explores potential strategies for mitigating negative impacts and promoting sustainable development in the region.

One of the key findings of this research is that mining activities can have significant negative impacts on the environment, including soil erosion, water pollution, and air pollution. This research underscores the need for sustainable mining practices that take into consideration the long-term impacts of mining on the locality. The impact of mining on the locality is a multifaceted issue that requires a comprehensive understanding of the social, economic, and environmental dimensions of mining activities. 1.1 Perception of the impact of mining Bhutan has a huge richness of mineral resources, including coal, dolomite, limestone, slate, and copper. A thorough enough geological map of 33% of the country has been created, according to the 2017 Mineral Development Policy. Only 0.04% of the land is now exploited for mining. The sector, despite being relatively tiny, is expected to have a big impact on Bhutan'seconomic growth, and the government is committed to taking advantage of its untapped resources (Gyelmo, 2021). However, the nation'smining and quarrying industries are expanding, and there have been reports of negative effects on local people and the environment. Many people are increasingly worried about the consequences that have an adverse influence on local populations and the delicate alpine ecosystems (National Council, 2013)

Mining can have significant impacts on people'slivelihoods and the standard of living in the surrounding communities. According to National Council Report (2018), mining and quarrying seem to be an economically lucrative business in Bhutan, the evidence of corporate income tax declared by the sample mines reveals that it is lucrative for some and not for others. These impacts can be both positive and negative, depending on a range of factors such as the scale and type of mining operation, the level of community involvement and consultation, and the regulatory and governance frameworks in place (Viveros, 2014). Mining can lead to the forced relocation of communities, resulting in the loss of homes, land, and livelihoods (Lawson & Bentil, 2013). This can have significant impacts on the social and economic well-being of affected communities, including loss of income, social networks, and cultural heritage (Matlaba et al., 2017). On the other hand, mining can also have positive impacts on livelihoods and the standard of living. However, it is important to note that the positive impacts of mining on livelihoods and the standard of living are not always guaranteed. In some cases, mining companies may fail to create local employment opportunities or provide adequate support for local development initiatives. There may also be unintended negative consequences, such as inflationary pressures and the displacement of small-scale agricultural and pastoralist communities (Plank et al., 2016).

Mining in Bhutan has been controversial due to concerns over its impact on the environment and the local communities. While mining activities have contributed to the country'seconomic growth, there are also concerns about the negative effects on the environment and the well-being of local communities. According to a study conducted by Yangka (2021), mining activities have caused environmental degradation and loss of biodiversity in several areas of the country. The study also found that mining activities have led to soil erosion, water pollution, and other environmental issues. Additionally, the study highlighted the negative impacts on the health and livelihoods of local communities, particularly those living near mining sites. Similarly study by Pollut (2018) in Ghana reveals that the majority of Ghana'smining communities have suffered from environmental degradation brought on by mining processes, including air and water pollution.

Furthermore, a report published by (Kuenga, 2017) also highlights the negative impact of mining on the environment and communities in Bhutan. The report notes that mining activities have resulted in the loss of fertile land, the destruction of forests, and the displacement of communities. The report also points out that there is alack of proper regulations and monitoring mechanisms to ensure that mining activities are carried out in an environmentally sustainable and socially responsible manner. The study by Galay (2006) argues that mining can contribute to the country'seconomic growth, improve infrastructure development, and reduce dependence on foreign aid. It is perceived as an opportunity to leverage the country'smineral resources for economic diversification and poverty reduction. Despite these potential positive impacts, it is important to ensure that mining activities are conducted responsibly and sustainably to minimize negative impacts on people'slivelihoods and standard of living and promote long-term development in mining communities. 1.2 Impact of Mining on employment opportunities Mining activities can provide employment opportunities for local communities, particularly in areas with high unemployment rates (Walser, 2020). Mining companies often require a diverse range of skills, including engineering, geology, and environmental science, as well as a range of support services, such as catering, transportation, and security. This can lead to improved income levels and reduced poverty, as well as increased skills and training opportunities for local workers (Bebbington, 2018). Although mining companies in Bhutan do not seem to provide a permanent source of employment, the study revealed that 61% of the workforce is comprised of Bhutanese and half of that comes from local communities (National Council Report, 2018). According to a report by the World Bank (2018) and UNDP (2018), mining can provide direct and indirect employment opportunities. Direct employment includes jobs in the mining industry such as miners, engineers, and geologists, while indirect employment includes jobs created in related industries such as transportation, manufacturing, and services. The report notes that in some regions, mining can be a major employer, with some mines employing thousands of people. However, the report also highlights that the employment benefits of mining can be limited in some cases. For example, the report of William Baah-Boateng (2018) states that mining operations may require specialized skills that are not available locally, leading to the need to import labour or bring in workers from other regions. In addition, automation and technological advancements in the mining industry may lead to a decrease in the number of jobs available. 1.3 Role of Mining on Infrastructural Development in the Community Mining has been shown to playa significant role in the development of infrastructure in communities. Various studies have explored the relationship between mining and infrastructure development in communities. The study by Agbogidi and Okonjo (2018) examined the impact of mining on the development of infrastructure in the rural communities of Nigeria. The study found that mining activities have positive effects on the development of infrastructure in these communities, including the provision of roads, water supply, and electricity. Similarly, another study by Adjei and Yamoah (2018) explored the relationship between mining and infrastructure development in Ghana. The study found that mining has contributed significantly to the development of infrastructure in the country, including the provision of roads, hospitals, schools, and other public facilities.

In contrast, a study by Baffour-Kyei et al. (2021) examined the impact of mining on the development of infrastructure in rural communities in Ghana and found that although mining has contributed to the development of some infrastructure, it has also led to the degradation of existing infrastructure such as roads and water supply systems. Another study by Chun-Chao et al., (2019) examined the impact of mining on the development of infrastructure in China. The study found that mining activities have contributed significantly to the development of infrastructure in the country, including the provision of roads, railways, and power plants. Mining companies can contribute to local development through infrastructure development initiatives such as building schools, health clinics, and roads (Reed & Miranda, 2015). This can improve access to basic services and enhance the quality of life for communities. Many mining companies have adopted corporate social responsibility initiatives aimed at improving the social and economic well-being of communities affected by mining activities (Marutle, 2017). These initiatives can include education and training programs, health and safety initiatives, and support for small-scale enterprises. Therefore, the literature suggests that mining has a significant impact on the development of infrastructure in communities. However, the nature and extent of this impact vary depending on the location, type of mining activity, and the policies and regulations in place to manage the industry.