Trend Analysis in Fertilizer Consumption by Field Crops and its Determinants in Lesotho
Abstract
Inorganic fertilizer was introduced to farmers in the past century by the government to replenish nutrients absorbed by crops grown in the fields. The fertilizer consumption rate has not yet been determined since then. The study was therefore undertaken to: (i) establish the growth rate at which inorganic fertilizer is applied by farmers, (ii) determine the trend in the consumption of inorganic fertilizer by farmers, (iii) disaggregate different types of fertilizer nutrients applied in the country in general and in particular by districts, and (iv) determine factors influencing fertilizer consumption. The study used time-series data obtained from FAOSTAT Fertilizer by Nutrient and AfricaFertilizers IFDC. Data on total fertilizer nutrients and their composition covered the period from 1994 to 2024, while data on consumption covered the period from 2014 to 2025. Microsoft Excel was used to capture data, after which it was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to calculate mean, variance, standard deviation, annual and compounded growth rates, trendlines, linear regression analysis, and instability index. Results revealed that the mean fertilizer consumption over 30 years was 5,700 tons, with minimum and maximum consumption rates of 3,500 tons and 7,800 tons, respectively. The growth rate in consumption increased steadily, with a mean growth rate of 9.3%. The compounded annual growth rate was 64.5%, with the highest and lowest rates of consumption being 17.1% and 4.4%, respectively. The mean nitrogen consumption was 3,892 tons, with a minimum consumption of 3,310 tons and a maximum of 4,350 tons. Phosphorus consumption recorded a mean of 1,431 tons, with a maximum of 1,580 tons and a minimum of 1,190 tons. The mean potassium consumption was 1,036 tons, with the lowest consumption of 850 tons and the highest consumption of 1,301 tons, respectively. The trend in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium consumption expressed modest growth over the period under study. Nitrogen was trending at a higher level than the latter two, which were at slightly different levels. Large quantities of fertilizer were distributed to Berea, followed by Maseru district, while the districts with the lowest quantities were Mokhotlong and Qacha's Nek districts, respectively. Consumption of fertilizer is influenced by fragmented fields, prohibitive costs, ineffective input subsidy policy, lack of institutional support, and inaccessibility by highlands farmers. It is recommended that fertilizer programmes be established by the government, funded by donors and development agencies, in the Southern and highlands regions where the application rate is too low due to inaccessibility and unaffordability.
Keywords
Download Options
Introduction
Crops require nutrients in varying amounts to grow, develop, flower, and give a substantial yield, some of which are already available in the soil in excess, while others are in short supply [1], [2]. Among these nutrients, there are those that are said to be essential; thus, the plants cannot complete their life cycle without them [3]. These are nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, magnesium, and calcium [4], [5]. Based on the large amounts required by plants, these are called macronutrients, while those needed in small or minute quantities are micronutrients [6]. Besides the two aforementioned categories of nutrients, there are some required in large quantities but readily available in the atmosphere, with no need to apply them to the crops since they are in abundance and are easily captured by plants, namely carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen [7]. Where field crops are grown over a longer period of time, the two categories get depleted in particular macronutrients, necessitating replenishment based on the requirement of the crop to be grown, while vegetables need both categories in substantial amounts, otherwise they express deficiency symptoms of the nutrient that is inadequate in plants [8], [9]. The deficiency symptoms for each nutrient are distinct and can be established by visual assessment, soil sampling to determine nutrient status, or plant/tissue analysis to quantify and identify elements below threshold [5], [10].
To replenish nutrients depleted below the crop requirement, supplementary nutrients must be applied in the form of fertilizer differing in formulations such as granular, powder, spray, liquid, capsules, slow release, pellets, fumigants, and effervescent and non-effervescent tablets [4], [11], [12]. The former four are mostly applied in field crops, while the latter six are adopted in vegetable crop production. Nutrients are applied in two splits: basal dressing just before, during, or immediately after planting the seeds of the crop. The other split is top-dressing, applied to growing crops, in particular nitrogenous fertilizers, because they are subject to great losses through volatilization, leaching, and immobilization [4]. Phosphorus and potassium are applied at planting in one dose without splitting them. The correct amount, right time of application or stage of the crop, and placement of the fertilizer in proximity to plants are of paramount importance, enabling crops to beneficially utilize the fertilizer for optimal growth and yield [13].
In Lesotho, field crop production began in time immemorial to feed its nation and sell surplus to other nations in their neighborhoods to get cash for other household requirements. With time, soil nutrients got depleted and had to be replenished by organic manure derived from farm animals reared. Nonetheless, benefits derived from organic manure were slow to enrich the soil with nutrients and produce optimal yield; thus, their effects were not immediate but cumulative over time. Nutrients in the manure were released slowly in small amounts, inadequate to meet the crop requirement. With the advent of colonization by the British Government, fertilizer was introduced to supersede organic manure, though there was resistance by the farmers to adopt it in their cropping systems. Nonetheless, it gained more popularity through extension service deployed in the communities to conduct methods and result demonstrations with farmers. It then became available in retail shops and through donations from donor partners and development agents. The adoption rate of fertilizer use spread countrywide across all different types of field crop farmers. To date, no scientific study has been conducted to determine the dynamics of fertilizer use since its introduction. It is therefore for this reason that the study is generally undertaken to track the consumption rate of fertilizer by farmers over time. While the specific objectives are to: (i) establish the growth rate at which inorganic fertilizer is applied by field crop farmers, (ii) determine the trend in the consumption of inorganic fertilizer by field crop farmers in Lesotho, (iii) disaggregate different types of nutrients in the fertilizer applied in the country in general and in particular by districts, and (iv) determine socio-economic factors influencing fertilizer consumption.
Conclusion
The fertilizer consumption rate of 8.7 kg ha⁻¹ in Lesotho is relatively low compared to Eswatini with 74 kg ha⁻¹ and Botswana with 15 kg ha⁻¹ as neighboring countries sharing many factors in common and subscribing to membership of regional economic development bodies such as SADC, SACU, etc. [18]. In both countries, agricultural programs in place include intensive use of fertilizer in plantations such as orange, banana, pineapple, and sugar-cane production in Swaziland. These programs are heavily funded by Commonwealth Development Cooperation, Tibiyo Taka Ngwane King's Trust, and many other World Development Partners. The dire situation in Lesotho necessitates nutrient soil mapping and crop suitability mapping synchronization nation-wide. Since maize, beans, wheat, potatoes, and sorghum are predominant, they could be used as crop models for determining optimum nutrient requirements that would give substantial yield, and fertilizer application rates that would build up soil fertility status to the level of just replenishing annually nutrients removed by the previous crop. Other ameliorates for increasing efficient utilization of crop nutrients should be applied, such as heavy organic manure to improve soil properties, water-holding capacity, resistance to soil erodibility, and infiltration rate. Besides, judicious crop planning incorporating beneficial crop rotation based on commonly grown crops, mulching using both organic and inorganic materials, leguminous cover crops, and green manure should be adopted for the long-term benefit of both soil and crops. All these would recuperate the soil fertility conditions of the Lesotho arable land.
References
- Khatun, A., Mukherjee, S., Bullah, M. M., & Bhattacharya, P. (2024). Effects of micronutrients on crop quality. International Journal of Research in Agronomy, *7*(4), 107-114. https://doi.org/10.33545/2618060X.2024.v7.i4b.537
- Dhobhal, A. (2023). Advances in plant nutrition: A comprehensive review. International Research Journal of Agricultural Science and Soil Science, *12*(4), 1-3.
- Solberg, M. (2025). Plant nutrition: Essential elements, uptake mechanisms, and physiological significance. International Research Journal of Plant Science, *16*(28), 1-2.
- Cao, W., et al. (2025). Progress in the study of plant nitrogen and potassium nutrition and their interaction mechanisms. Horticulturae, *11*(8), 930. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080930
- Salam, N. K., et al. (2025). Optimizing soil nutrient dynamics: Recent insights into soil-plant interactions. International Journal of Research in Agronomy, *8*(5), 846-854. https://doi.org/10.33545/2618060X.2025.v8.i5g.2994
- Alemayehu, K. (2023). The role of essential nutrients in enhancing plant growth and secondary metabolite synthesis. International Journal of Bioscience and Biochemistry, *5*(2), 40-43. https://doi.org/10.33545/26646536.2023.v5.i2a.80
- Aye, H. N., & Masih, S. (2023). Role of nutrients in plants, its deficiency and management. International Journal of Plant & Soil Science, *35*(10), 129-136. https://doi.org/10.9734/ijpss/2023/v35i102932
- Lyu, J. (2026). A nitrogen-response coordinator. Nature Plants, *12*(3), 483. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-026-02265-0
- Marschner, P. (2012). Mineral nutrition of higher plants. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2009-0-63043-9
- Broutin, J., & Meyer, C. (2025). Nitrate to spark parched plants. Nature Plants, *11*(11), 2192-2193. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-025-02150-2
- V, V. N. S., & Rao, M. G. N. V. (2022). Formulation, development and characterization of an eco-friendly N-P-K fertilizer with multi micronutrient matrix. Bioscience, Biotechnology Research Asia, *19*(3), 787-795. https://doi.org/10.13005/bbra/3031
- Venugopal, N. V. S., & Mohana Rao, G. N. V. (2021). A facile synthesis and characterization of new nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (N-P-K) fertilizer fortified with tri-micronutrient matrix and its application for optimal plant augmentation. Oriental Journal of Chemistry, *37*(6), 1452-1457. https://doi.org/10.13005/ojc/370626
- Agegnehu, G., Legesse, G., Tigabie, A., Desalegn, H., & Desta, G. (2025). Integrated soil fertility management strategies for resilient soils in Ethiopia.
- Bureau of Statistics. (2019). Agricultural production survey – Crops. Maseru.
- Bureau of Statistics. (2023). Agricultural production survey – Crops. Maseru.
- Morojele, M. E., & Sekoli, M. S. (2016). Trend analysis of maize production in Lesotho and its distribution among the ecological zone. European Journal of Agriculture and Forestry Research, *4*(3), 1-4.
- Food Agriculture Organization. (2020). FAOSTAT. Rome.
- FAOSTAT. (n.d.). Food and agriculture data.
- International Fertilizer Development Center. (2023). Fertilizer fact sheet 2023: Tanzania.
- FAO. (2022). Cropland nutrient budget – Global, regional and country trends, 1961–2020. Rome.
- Makochekanwa, A. (2023, April 27). Low-capacity hits fertiliser industry. Business Times.
- Mtangadura, T. J., Mtambanengwe, F., Nezomba, H., Rurinda, J., & Mapfumo, P. (2017). Why organic resources and current fertilizer formulations in Southern Africa cannot sustain maize productivity: Evidence from a long-term experiment in Zimbabwe. PLoS One, *12*(8), e0182840. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182840
- World Bank Group. (n.d.). Fertilizer consumption (kilograms per hectare of arable land).
- M, D., O, M. W., & N, S. N. (2021). The effects of organic liquid fertilizer (vegetable waste) on moisture retention, soil physical properties and yield of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) grown in the Malkerns Area, a region in the Kingdom of Eswatini. Advances in Agriculture, Horticulture and Entomology, *2021*(05). https://doi.org/10.37722/AAHAE.2021502
- FAO. (2023). World food and agriculture – Statistical yearbook 2023. https://doi.org/10.4060/cc8166en
- Bureau of Statistics, L. (2022). Lesotho agricultural situation report. Maseru.
- Motlhwa, G., James, M. Y., & Yunxian, Y. (2019). Effects of Integrated Support Programme for Arable Agricultural Development (ISPAAD) on the income of sorghum farmers: Evidence from Kweneng District, Botswana. Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics & Sociology, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajaees/2019/v36i130234.