Agriculture Journal: Volume-11, Issue-8, August, 2025

Abstract- This study investigates the agricultural benefits of Yagya (Agnihotra) by analysing the release of essential plant nutrients from Yagya ash and its impact on the growth of pea (Pisum sativum). Incubation experiments and pot trials with Yagya and wood ash were conducted. Incubation study revealed that all treatments were able to improve the soil fertility. Maximum organic carbon, available phosphorus and available potassium were obtained in treatment YA5 and WA6 (0.93% and 1.05%), YA6 and WA6 (159.04 kg/ha and 215.04 kg/ha) and YA6 and WA6 (280.8 kg/ha and 374.6 kg/ha). Available Sulphur was increased by 14.1 to 140.8 and 3.8 to 33.3-fold in Yagya ash and wood ash treatments. pH and electrical conductivity of the soil increased initially in all treatments and normalized at the end of the incubation study in Yagya ash whereas neutral pH was not attained for wood ash treatments. FTIR characterization of ash shows the presence of carboxylic acids, alkenes and alcohols. No significant changes were observed between the surface morphologies of the ash samples before and after incubation. Likewise, pot trials results revealed that Yagya ash improved the plant growth and yield. Maximum seed germination (73.3%), plant length (78.5 cm), plant biomass (29.2g), nodules (20), pod length of 9.37 cm were observed in treatment T5 (Yagya ash + chemical). Additionally, Yagya ash application with organic and inorganic inputs improved the plant nutrients. Findings suggest that Yagya ash can serve as an effective organic fertilizer, promoting sustainable agriculture by enhancing nutrient availability and plant growth.
Keywords— Yagya ash, organic farming, incubation, wood ash, pea.

Abstract- Waste management problems and the need for renewable energy can be addressed by utilizing municipal solid waste for bioethanol production as a renewable feedstock. The enzymatic hydrolysis process of turning solid waste into fermentable sugars for the subsequent production of bioethanol is the main focus of the current study. Enzyme access is significantly facilitated by effective pretreatment, particularly the alkali process with NaOH, which breaks the resistant lignocellulosic structure. Hydrolysis is possible under moderate circumstances (40–50°C, pH 4.5–5.0) thanks to fungal-derived cellulolytic enzymes from Aspergillus and Trichoderma strains. Using ethanologenic yeasts such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pichia stipitis, the sugar-containing hydrolysate is then fermented, with optimised procedures producing ethanol. It has been discovered that integration approaches to the process, like simultaneous fermentation and saccharification, increase efficiency compared to independent operating steps. Despite promising results, problems with process optimisation, biomass recalcitrance, and enzyme cost persist. Enzymatic hydrolysis is used in this study as an example of a possible method for turning municipal waste into bioethanol; however, further technological advancements are required to increase the economic feasibility and commercial use of this environmentally friendly bioconversion process.
Keywords— lignocellulosic, fermentation, recalcitrance, enzymatic hydrolysis, bioethanol, waste management, municipal solid waste, and pretreatment.

Abstract- Rice is a staple food in Bangladesh, and its production is crucial to ensuring food security and employment; however, it still suffers from extensive yield loss due to pest infestations. Pheromone traps are an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical pesticides that are not as widely utilized as they should be due to issues of knowledge and access. This research integrates global research priorities and farmer perceptions to enhance policy and support sustainable pest management in conjunction with conservation and the SDGs. To examine the appropriateness, mainstreaming, and sustainability of PTs within rice-based cropping systems, this analysis combined trends emerging from a global literature review with the experience of local farmers. A bibliometric analysis of 39 publications indexed in Scopus from 1995 to 2025 reveals an annual growth rate of 2.34%. Notably, there is a single-year spike in publications in 2024, accounting for over 20% of all outputs. After performing an authorship analysis, we observed 164 participants and a mean of 4.26 co-authors per paper, indicating that the research network had accepted some collaboration, but also that it was somewhat centralized. Although India, as a country, has the most significant number of articles, the average citation per article was highest for countries such as Australia and Korea (101.0 & 46.00, respectively), which have a high research impact despite relatively lower contributions. However, despite these encouraging patterns, a thematic analysis also found that relatively few studies investigated socio-economic adoption drivers or farmer attitudes. Field data are beginning to fill this gap based on monitoring efforts in Bangladesh, where 72% of the farmers surveyed indicated that they had heard about pheromone traps, but only 38% consistently used them to monitor jute pests. Farmers identified lower costs, ecological benefits, and pesticide reduction as the main advantages. At the same time, the lack of traps, limited extension support, and doubts about its effectiveness were significant constraints to adoption. This reemphasizes the need for research and policy to draw closer to farmers. Cross-disciplinary work—between agronomy, rural sociology, behavioral economics, extension services, and beyond—is needed to increase adoption. Just as important are public-private partnerships for maintenance, supply chain stability, and training programs. When adequately promoted, the pheromone trap can be transformed into a pillar practice for sustainable rice and feed production, aligning with SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production), and SDG 13 (Climate Action). Making this environmentally responsible invention a reality in practice, not just in textbooks, is both an opportunity and a necessity.
Keywords— Pheromone Traps, Rice Cultivation, Pest Management, Integrated Pest Management (IPM), Sustainable Agriculture, Eco-friendly Pest Control.

Abstract- The existing global framework of research on agricultural technology dissemination in crop production is still multidisciplinary and has not been integrated. This study conducts a comprehensive bibliometric analysis on 346 documents indexed in Scopus from 1986 to 2025 in order to map the evolution, structure, and emerging frontiers of scholarly work on agricultural technology diffusion. Moreover, this work utilized statistical methods and network mapping in R software to analyze growth trajectories as well as identify key authors, institutions, countries, and their collaboration patterns. Although India documented the most output (13.3% of documents), it had very few international partnerships. Conversely, Kenya achieved the highest average citation impact through extensive cross-border collaboration despite having fewer articles. Also, ICRISAT, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, and ICAR-IARI, which are all in the region and serve as centers of agri-innovation, stood out as leading institutions. From the co-occurrence of keywords, some broad agronomic topics have been shifted toward more advanced concepts such as sustainability, climate resilience, and precision agriculture, which helps to reflect the global food security agenda. Longitudinal analyses point out an inflection point (turning point) around the year 2008, after which the terms “food security”, “climate change”, and “precision farming” started to emerge more frequently. Although there is rapid growth at a rate of 7.4% per year, it is evident that there is stagnant growth due to a lack of critical infrastructure, limited access to credit, poor extension services, and largely unexplored mechanisms for marketing, financing, and adoption on a large scale. This study creates an evidence-based roadmap by mapping the gaps in the field’s intellectual structure and highlighting under-researched areas. This roadmap can be utilised by researchers, policymakers, and extension agents to streamline future investigations, collaborations, and devise strategic interventions that expedite the global dissemination of transformative technologies to farmers.
Keywords— Technology dissemination, Crop production, Agricultural technology, Research trends, Bibliometric analysis. Scopus database.

Abstract- Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) is recognized as one of the world's most economically significant crops. The climatic conditions and soil types in Sudan, particularly within the central clay plains, are highly suitable for sugarcane cultivation. Organic fertilizer (compost) is a vital natural resource for improving soil fertility by increasing organic matter content, enhancing soil structure, and stimulating microbial activity, which collectively improve nutrient uptake and crop productivity. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of different levels of compost and nitrogen fertilizers on the productivity of sugarcane (variety Co6806) grown on heavy clay soils (Vertisol). The experiment was conducted during the 2023/2024 season at the Research and Development Farm of the Kenana Sugar Scheme, Sudan. The experimental design was a split-plot arrangement with four replications. Nitrogen fertilizer was assigned to the main plots at four levels (0, 23, 46, and 69 kg/ha), while compost was applied to the subplots at four rates (0, 5, 10, and 15 t/ha). The results demonstrated that increasing nitrogen fertilizer rates significantly enhanced both the number of cane internodes and overall cane yield, while higher compost rates significantly improved internode number, and cane yield. Moreover, the combination of compost and nitrogen fertilizer further increased stalk population, number of internodes, and cane yield compared to their sole applications. The highest cane yield (172.0 t/ha) was recorded with the combined application of 15 t/ha compost and 69 kg/ha nitrogen. Based on the results of this study, it could be recommended that to obtain a high cane yield of sugarcane (variety Co6806), the crop should be fertilized by Nitrogen at the rate of 69 kg/ha and Compost at the rate of 15 tons/ha.
Keywords— Sugarcane productivity, Compost application, Nitrogen fertilizer, Integrated nutrient management, Vertisol soils, Sustainable agriculture, Kenana Sugar Scheme, Organic and inorganic fertilizers.

Abstract- Introduction: The Food and Agricultural Organization predicts that about 1.3 billion tonnes of food are globally wasted or lost per year. This is equivalent to 30% of food produced for human consumption for the same period. Some reports have estimated that this lost or wasted food can be used to feed 1.6 billion people every year.
Problem Statement: Global food waste is a far-reaching problem with tremendous financial, ethical and environmental costs. The amount of food lost or wasted costs US$2.6 trillion annually and is more than enough to feed about 815 million hungry people in the world four times over.
Methodology: The study is mainly qualitative with some quantitative in scope making use of secondary data (literature from journals, working papers, unpublished theses, publications from government, World Bank and similar institutions) and global agribusiness industry. Results: The review found out that, via meta-analysis, evidence of post-harvest losses in Africa is spotty and quantitative estimates are often derived from inadequate datasets. The major reason for many post-harvest losses estimates is weak assessment methodologies. The world’s increasing population and demand for food, reducing food loss and waste is one of the challenges globally. Food loss and waste have significant negative food-security, economic and environmental impacts. The value of annual food loss and waste globally is about US$1 trillion and one billion tonnes in quantity.
Conclusion: Although reduction of post-harvest food losses is a critical component of ensuring future global food security, however, production resources including land, water and energy are at the moment limited and inelastic
Keywords— Food Security; Post-harvest Losses and Waste; Supply Chain; Qualitative and Quantitative Losses.

Abstract- This study focuses on the surveillance of major diseases affecting urdbean (blackgram) cultivated in rice fallows within the Krishna district of Andhra Pradesh. The research is driven by the significant yield losses caused by major diseases in this region. The primary objective is to assess the impact of these diseases on crop yields to develop effective management strategies. A roving survey was conducted in farmers' fields during the rabi 2022-23 season, with data collected on disease incidence and severity for various pathogens, including Yellow Mosaic Virus (YMV), leaf crinkle, leaf curl, stem canker, leaf spots, and powdery mildew. Results from the Rabi 2022-23 survey revealed varying levels of disease prevalence across different villages and crop stages. The incidence of Mungbean Yellow Mosaic Virus (MYMV), measured on a 1-9 scale, ranged from 1 to 5. The percentage of leaf crinkle incidence varied from 1.63% to 11.54%. Leaf spots were rated on a disease scale of 1-9, with scores ranging from 3 to 6. Powdery mildew severity, assessed on a 0-5 scale, ranged from 2 to 3. The percent incidence of leaf curl was found to be between 0% and 2.81%, while stem canker incidence ranged from 2.18% to 27.73%. The findings of this research indicate that diseases such as powdery mildew, Corynespora leaf spot, leaf crinkle, MYMV, and stem canker are all contributing to yield losses in blackgram.
Keywords— Blackgram, MYMV, ULCV, leaf curl, powdery mildew, Corynespora leaf spot, and stem canker.

Abstract- With an objective to find out the non-chemical alternative to manage the Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (L), infecting anthracnose disease in black gram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper] in vitro condition during the year 2021-23. Different antagonist bio-agents viz. Trichoderma viride, T. harzianum, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus subtilis were evaluated by dual culture technique as well as efficacy of different organic inputs and phytoextracts viz. panchagavya, jivamrutha, cow urine, vermiwash, neem leaf extract, ginger rhizome extract, garlic bulb extract, datura leaf extract were tested in vitro by using poisoned food technique against C. lindemuthianum. The result indicated that among the in vitro tested fungal and bacterial antagonist, T. viride showed maximum growth inhibition of 60.48 per cent which was followed by T. harzianum (50.19%). Among eight organic inputs and phytoextracts, the highest mean growth inhibition of 60.99 per cent was recorded with panchagavya which was followed by jivamrutha (57.17%) whereas in pot condition vermiwash at 10 per cent gave highest per cent disease control (57.20%) followed by garlic bulb extract at 10 per cent (51.19%).
Keywords—

Abstract- Leafy vegetables are important in medicine and are easily accessible, making them the most affordable source of treatment in the primary healthcare system for poor communities. Phytochemicals are plant components with specific bioactivities in animal biochemistry and metabolism. They are being extensively studied for their potential to provide health benefits. It is crucial to establish a scientific rationale to support their use in foods as potential nutritionally active components. Some of the significant phytochemicals with a variety of biological functions include alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, tannins, terpenoids, steroids, glycosides, and terpenes. The current investigation evaluates the phytochemical profiles of a sample of 8 leafy vegetable species cultivated in both soil-based and hydroponic growing environments. The study found that some species in both cultivation methods contain phenolics, flavonoids, alkaloids, and terpenoids. The importance of specific plant species is examined in relation to their role in ethnomedicine, and these results will be useful for further comparative studies of phytochemistry in beds and for subsequent studies on hydroponic cultivation.
Keywords— Leafy vegetables, Phytochemicals, Secondary metabolites, Hydroponic, Ethnomedicine, Beneficial.

Abstract- Soil moisture plays a critical role in agricultural productivity, hydrological processes, and climate interactions, particularly in semi-arid regions. This study investigates soil moisture variability in North Gujarat by integrating NASA’s Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) datasets with Google Earth Engine (GEE) capabilities. A modular Python-based analytical pipeline was developed for data acquisition, preprocessing, correlation analysis, anomaly detection, trend estimation, and time-series forecasting using SARIMA and ARIMA models. The SARIMA model, incorporating precipitation as an exogenous factor, achieved an RMSE of 0.0781 m³/m³ and an MAE of 0.0615 m³/m³ for surface moisture prediction. The system also integrates an irrigation decision-support logic that determines optimal ON/OFF irrigation sequences based on real-time and forecasted moisture levels. Results reveal stable soil moisture conditions with no anomalies in the last 30 days, enabling improved irrigation scheduling for water-constrained agro-systems in North Gujarat.
Keywords— Soil Moisture, SARIMA, ARIMA, NASA SMAP, Google Earth Engine, Remote Sensing, Irrigation Decision Support.

Abstract- Climate change poses a significant threat to smallholder farmers’ livelihoods, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions such as Kenya’s Makueni County, where rain-fed agriculture dominates. Increasing rainfall variability, recurrent droughts, and extreme temperatures have undermined food security, incomes, and resilience. This study assessed livelihood vulnerability to climate change in three agro-ecological zones, Mbooni (semi-humid), Makueni (semi-arid), and Kibwezi East (arid), focusing on exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. Guided by the Sustainable Livelihoods Approach and using the Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) framework, a descriptive mixed-methods design was employed. Data from 289 smallholder households were collected through questionnaires, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews, with quantitative analysis conducted in SPSS and qualitative data thematically analyzed. Results showed that 76.8% of farmers experienced extreme weather, with Kibwezi East recording the highest incidence (88.6%), Makueni 70.9%, and Mbooni 69.5%. The correlation between climate change perception and agro-ecological zones was statistically significant (χ² = 13.297, df = 2, p < 0.01). Key indicators influencing vulnerability included high dependency ratios (SDP index = 2.387, highest in Kibwezi East at 2.571), female-headed households, limited crop diversity (food index = 1.168 overall; Makueni 1.238, Mbooni 1.231), low grain storage capacity, reliance on own-farm production, and weak access to credit and extension services (finance and income index = 1.434 overall, with Mbooni highest at 1.481). Other stressors included long distances to healthcare facilities (health index = 1.196, with Kibwezi East highest at 1.259) and water scarcity (water index = 0.575, particularly acute in Kibwezi East and Makueni). Adaptive capacity was constrained by inadequate irrigation infrastructure (livelihood strategy index = 0.173, <0.2 in all zones), limited non-farm income opportunities, and underutilization of indigenous knowledge (IK index = 1.816, with Mbooni at 1.856). The overall livelihood vulnerability index was 0.574, with Kibwezi East, Makueni, and Mbooni scoring 0.496, 0.555, and 0.479 respectively, while the overall vulnerability index was negative (-0.464), indicating that sensitivity and exposure outweighed adaptive capacity. The study recommends strengthening water infrastructure, promoting drought-tolerant crops and diversified farming systems, improving access to agricultural finance, and integrating climate-smart practices into extension services. Policy interventions should embed climate adaptation into county development plans and enhance social safety nets to protect the most vulnerable. Such measures are vital for safeguarding livelihoods and sustaining agricultural productivity amid intensifying climate risks.
Keywords— Smallholder farmers, vulnerability levels, climate change, Makueni County, Kenya.

Abstract- The Custard apple or sugar apple (Annona squmosa L.) is one of India’s oldest dry land fruit crop belonging to family Annonaceae and genus Annona. The extract of ten plants part was evaluated against leaf spots by poisoned food technique. Among them, extract of lantana leaves (Lantana camera L.) (81.91%) was proved excellent in inhibiting mycelial growth of the pathogen. Next best in order of merit was bougainvillea (Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd) leaves extract (58.60%), neem (Azadirachta indica Juss). leaves extracts (58.01%), subabul (Leucaena leucocephala Lam) leaves extract (57.68%), garlic (Allium sativum L.) clove extracts (55.20), ashoka (Polyanthia longifolia Sonn.) leaves extract (54.99%) and Simarouba (Simarouba glauca DC) leaves extract (54.78%).
Keywords— In vitro, Colletotrichum gloeosporioides, Custard apple, anthracnose.

Abstract- The study examines the socio-economic profile, disposal pattern, and production constraints of finger millet farmers in Almora district, Uttarakhand, the state’s leading producer. Three development blocks were purposively selected, with 90 farmers chosen through multi-stage random sampling. Primary data for 2022–23 were collected via structured interviews, and secondary data on area and production (2008–09 to 2022–23) were sourced from official records. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze socio-economic variables, while Garret’s ranking technique identified key production and marketing constraints. Results revealed that cultivation is dominated by middle-aged farmers (35–55 years), with moderate literacy, large family sizes, and small, largely rainfed holdings. Livestock, especially goats and buffaloes, form a vital component of the farming system, with major investment in cattle sheds. On-farm income accounted for the bulk of household earnings. Constraints included labour scarcity, low productivity, inadequate irrigation, and market access issues, underscoring the need for targeted interventions to sustain and enhance finger millet cultivation.
Keywords— Finger millet, Almora district, socio-economic profile, disposal pattern, production constraints, hill agriculture.

Abstract- The study aims to compare the extraction of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), accumulated as intracellular inclusions in rhizosphere bacteria, when cultivated in minimal salt medium (MSM) and tender coconut water (TCW). Soil samples were collected from beneath a coconut tree, and bacterial isolates were obtained. The presence of PHA-producing bacteria was initially screened using Sudan Black B staining and subsequently confirmed with Nile Blue A staining. The confirmed PHA-producing isolates were cultured in MSM (designated as Sample A) and in TCW (designated as Sample B). PHA were successfully extracted from both media. Biofilm formation was observed, and PHA quantification was carried out using the crotonic acid assay. In addition, antioxidant activity was evaluated using the DPPH assay. This investigation provides a comparative assessment of PHA production by coconut rhizosphere bacteria grown in MSM and TCW, highlighting the potential of tender coconut water as a sustainable raw material for large-scale PHA production.
Keywords— Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) bio plastics, rhizosphere bacteria, Tender Coconut water media, crotonic acid assay, antioxidant activity and DPPH assay.

Abstract- Occupational structure of the population refers to the distribution of the working population across different sectors of the economy, which essentially indicating what proportion of people are employed in different types of work. It is a major indicator of a country’s economic development as well as its level of industrialization. The changing pattern of occupational structure depends primarily on various interrelated factors, including the level of economic development, educational attainment and technological advancements etc. The study area Jashpur district lies in the North-eastern corner of Chhattisgarh State with latitudinal and longitudinal extension is 220 17' to 230 15' North and 830 30' to 840 24' East respectively. The present paper focus on the changes in occupational structure of population in Jashpur district from 2001 to 2011. This paper is based on secondary data which collected from the District Census Handbook 2001 & 2011of Jashpur. The main findings are that the occupational structure in Jashpur district is rapidly changing, as most people are moving away from traditional agricultural practices towards a more diversified economy, characterized by a significant decline in the proportion of main workers and an increase in marginal workers as well as a decrease in the overall working population.
Keywords— Jashpur district, Occupational structure, Main workers, Marginal workers and Non-workers Population.

Abstract- This study was conducted to assess water quality parameters of water samples taken from irrigation wells used to irrigate agricultural fields of Alemdar Neighborhood of Konya-Çumra District. Water samples were taken in June, July, August, September and October. The pH values of irrigation water samples varied between 7.11 – 8.12, EC values varied between 580 - 1150 µmhos/cm. Irrigation water salinity classes were identified as C2S1 (moderately saline - low alkaline) and C3S1 (highly saline - low alkaline). Boron concentration of all samples was below the threshold boron level of 0.67 ppm.
Keywords— Irrigation, irrigation water quality, saline irrigation water, boron.

Abstract- This study assessed the socio-economic impact of floods in semi-urban areas of Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria, to identify the causes of flooding in the rural areas and the adaptation mechanisms employed by people in the study area. The study was carried out in the semi-urban areas of Ile-Ife (Esinmirin and Omirin, Eleyele, Ogbon-Agbara, and Akarabata) with a population size of three hundred and sixty-six (366) households, out of which one hundred and seventy-five (175) households constituted the sample size of the study. Slovin’s formula was used to determine the sample size. The data were obtained through the administration of questionnaires to the respondents, and the data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency and percentage counts. The results obtained from the study showed that improper drainage systems (81.1%), waste dispositions into the stream (79.5%), buildings on the floodplain (93.7%), and improper building layout (76.5%), respectively, are the major causes of flooding in the study areas. The study also established that improved and respected building structures and codes (80.5%), packing of valuable properties to an area not affected by flood (80.6%), and also use of a protected wall to reduce the speed of flood water (53.3%), respectively are the adaptation mechanism employed in the study areas. The study concluded that the improper building layout, encroachment of flood plain, improper drainage systems, and lack of proper waste disposal centers are the factors responsible for flooding in the study areas.
Keywords— Flood, Socio-economic, Perception, Awareness, and Adaptation.

Abstract- The study was conducted to find the present status of postharvest practices and losses in selected commercially grown fruits and vegetables. Economically important four and twelve vegetables were selected. A cross sectional analysis was used to analyze the present status of the postharvest practices of fruits and vegetables in the country through questionnaire survey and direct observations. Information related to the postharvest operations were collected from 1829 of main actors of the supply chain; farmers, collectors, whole sellers, transporters and retailers. Loss assessment study was performed in major six perishable supply chains in the country. Weight losses of commodities were measured at different stages and results were compared with previous findings. Most of farmers well aware about maturity indices of fruits and vegetables, and majority of them consider correct maturity for harvesting selected crops. But, 5-31 % of farmers do not consider maturity indices. Further, small scale farmers generally do not have adequate facilities to sort and grade their harvest. The close truck category is dominant in transporting majority of commodities while guava, bitter guar, long bean and potato are transported in open trucks. Only around 3% of fruits and vegetables were found transported in refrigerated trucks. Commodities are packed four types packaging methods during post harvest handling; polysack bags, plastic crates, wooden boxes and corrugated fibreboard boxes. Most of vegetables (76% in average) are still transported in polysack bags. However, 94 % of papaya is transported in plastic crates while 54 % of guava is also transported using plastic crates and corrugated fiberboard boxes. All the actors mainly use polysack bags for transporting commodities. Majority of stakeholders in Sri Lankan fruit supply chain have adopted to use safe packaging methods. Previous loss assessment studies conducted in Sri Lanka exhibited that post harvest loss of fruits and vegetables were 30 – 40%. However, according to the present study, postharvest loss of fruits remain at 15-20% and it is 20-30% in vegetables which could be considered as considerable reduction due to many programs launched during last two decades.
Keywords— Postharvest Losses, Mechanical Damages, Packaging Methods, Supply Chain.