Volume-12, Issue-1, January 2026

Abstract

This study investigates the economic profitability of honey production in the Ramban, Kathua, and Jammu districts of Jammu Division, J&K, highlighting its potential as a sustainable livelihood. Using a stratified sampling approach, 200 beekeepers across high-, medium-, and low-density districts were surveyed to collect data on production costs, returns, socio-economic variables, and constraints. The analysis revealed significant inter-district variation in performance. Ramban district emerged as the most productive, yielding 7,196 quintals of honey and 486.6 quintals of beeswax, and the most profitable, with gross returns of ₹17,864.52 per quintal and a benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of 10.05. Kathua and Jammu districts also showed positive, though lower, profitability. The study concludes that apiculture is a highly profitable venture in the region, with an aggregate BCR of 7.95. Strategic interventions—including improved market access, value addition, cooperative models, and policies to reduce cost-price spreads—are recommended to enhance profitability and sustainability across all districts.

Keywords: Apiculture, Beekeeping, Economic Profitability, Benefit-Cost Ratio, Marketing Channels, Jammu & Kashmir

References

References not available

Abstract

Contamination of water resources with heavy metals poses serious environmental and public health problems due to their toxic, persistent, and bioaccumulative nature. Common heavy metals such as lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), nickel (Ni), and chromium (Cr) are abundant in industrial and municipal wastewater. Effective removal of these metals is essential to ensure water quality, protect aquatic ecosystems, and maintain ecological balance. This review provides a comprehensive comparative analysis of three main categories of heavy metal removal methods: physical, chemical, and biological techniques. Physical methods such as membrane filtration, coagulation-flocculation, and adsorption are widely used for their operational simplicity and efficiency. Chemical methods including precipitation, electrochemical treatment, and solvent extraction are effective but may generate secondary contaminants. Biological approaches such as bioremediation and phytoremediation offer environmentally friendly and sustainable alternatives. Additionally, emerging technologies like nanotechnology-based materials and hybrid processing systems are discussed for their potential to improve removal efficiency and sustainability. The comparative evaluation highlights the advantages and limitations of each method in terms of removal efficiency, cost, environmental impact, and scalability. The analysis concludes that hybrid or integrated treatment systems combining multiple methods provide higher efficiency and represent a promising approach for treating complex wastewaters contaminated with heavy metals.

Keywords: heavy metal removal, physical methods, chemical methods, biological methods, wastewater treatment, hybrid systems

References

References not available

Abstract

The present study examines the socio-economic profile of wheat growers in Kangra Valley of Himachal Pradesh. Using a multistage random sampling design, 80 wheat growers were selected from ten villages across two randomly selected blocks. Results revealed that most farmers (53.75%) were smallholders with less than one hectare of land, indicating limited potential for large-scale mechanization and a focus on subsistence agriculture. Literacy rates among farm heads exceeded 90%, with large farmers showing slightly higher literacy (94.59%) than small farmers (93.02%), suggesting receptiveness to improved technologies. Agriculture remained the primary occupation (69.75% of household workers). Land use analysis showed cultivated land accounted for 81.43% of operational holdings, with 65.05% under irrigation. Wheat dominated the rabi season, occupying 39.04% of gross cropped area, while maize (25.27%) and paddy (12.83%) were major kharif crops. Cropping intensity averaged 190.32%, reflecting multiple cropping practices. The average family size was 5.78 members, with 58.75% nuclear families. Farm investment in machinery and implements showed a positive correlation with farm size, averaging ₹2,76,998 for small farms and ₹3,65,758 for large farms. Livestock inventory averaged 1.83 animals per farm, dominated by cows (39.36%) and buffaloes (33.29%). The study highlights the predominance of smallholders, high literacy, and diversified livelihood strategies in the region.

Keywords: Wheat growers, family size, age, education, literacy rate, occupation, cropping pattern, farm investment, landholding, livestock

References

References not available

Abstract

Water scarcity has severely impacted the global economy, livelihoods, and environmental quality, driving the use of municipal and industrial wastewater as an alternative irrigation source in urban and peri-urban agriculture. This practice addresses water deficits but raises concerns about risks to human and environmental health from contaminants. This study evaluated the effect of diluted domestic sewage wastewater (used in semi-urban Palakkad) versus well water (used in rural areas) on pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan). We conducted a comprehensive analysis of irrigation water, soil, and various plant parts (seeds, leaves, stems, pods) for physicochemical parameters, proximate composition, full mineral profile, heavy metals, and in vitro antioxidant activity. Results indicated that most physicochemical parameters of the irrigation water were within FAO permissible limits, though the semi-urban source showed elevated iron, phosphate, and alkalinity. Critically, concentrations of toxic heavy metals (Ni, Cr, Cd, Pb, Cu) in soils and, most importantly, in the edible seeds remained well below WHO/FAO safety thresholds. Proximate analysis confirmed good nutritional quality in seeds from both sources (e.g., protein: 15.5-17.6 g/100g). Plants irrigated with both water types exhibited significant in vitro antioxidant activity across five complementary assays (FRAP, DPPH, ABTS, Metal Chelating, NO Scavenging), which was strongly correlated with phenolic content. A notable finding was the elevated iron content in seeds, suggesting a natural bioaccumulation propensity in C. cajan. The study concludes that, under the observed conditions, the use of diluted domestic sewage wastewater did not induce harmful heavy metal accumulation in C. cajan, maintained its nutritional value, and preserved its bioactive potential. This supports its role as a viable and sustainable irrigation alternative, contributing to water security and nutrient recycling. Non-seed tissues (leaves, pods) showed high phenolic content, indicating value for nutraceutical use or animal feed.

Keywords: Cajanus cajan, sewage wastewater irrigation, heavy metals, food safety, proximate composition, antioxidant activity, sustainable agriculture

References

References not available

Abstract

Rainfed and upland agriculture in India faces mounting challenges due to continuous cereal monoculture, leading to soil degradation and vulnerability to climate variability. Finger millet (Eleusine coracana L. Gaertn.), a climate-resilient and nutrient-rich small millet, offers a sustainable alternative for diversification. This review synthesizes evidence on the role of finger millet residue management in enhancing the productivity, nutrient uptake, soil properties, and economics of succeeding crops. With significant residue biomass (approximately 5 tonnes ha⁻¹) often underutilized, in-situ incorporation or mulching of these residues consistently improves dry matter accumulation, growth, and yield of subsequent legumes and cereals. These practices enhance nutrient cycling, increasing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium uptake by 10-30% in crops like greengram, groundnut, and maize. Long-term residue retention boosts soil organic carbon by 15-30%, reduces bulk density, and improves overall soil fertility compared to removal or burning. Economically, residue-based systems, particularly when integrated with legumes, yield higher gross and net returns with favorable benefit-cost ratios, despite marginally higher initial costs. Finger millet residue management is thus a viable strategy for ecological intensification. Adopting finger millet– legume systems with efficient residue recycling can significantly contribute to soil health, climate resilience, and livelihood security in India'srainfed regions.

Keywords: Crop residue recycling; ecological intensification; Eleusine coracana; nutrient cycling; rainfed agriculture; soil organic carbon; sustainable cropping systems

References

References not available

Abstract

A study was conducted to identify high-yielding single-cross maize hybrids. A total of 26 single-cross maize hybrids along with four checks were evaluated at the research field of the National Maize Research Program, Rampur, Chitwan, from November 2023 to May 2024. The experiment was laid out in an alpha-lattice design with two replications and six blocks per replication. Data for 14 agro-morphological and yield-related traits were recorded. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences in all traits, with heritability ranging from moderate (0.43-0.57) to high (0.64-0.87). ZH22668 (11.33 t ha⁻¹) was the highest-yielding hybrid, while ZH22741 (9.94 t ha⁻¹), ZH22712 (9.61 t ha⁻¹), ZH2182 (9.45 t ha⁻¹), ZH20379 (9.38 t ha⁻¹), and ZH22691 (9.37 t ha⁻¹) produced yields comparable to the commercial checks CP 808 (9.36 t ha⁻¹) and Sultan (9.33 t ha⁻¹). ZH22668, ZH22741, and ZH22712 showed a yield advantage of 2.62-21.04% over CP 808 and 26.38-49.11% over internal check CAH153. Therefore, ZH22668, ZH22741, and ZH22712 are promising hybrids for further evaluation in the inner-terai region of Nepal.

Keywords: Maize hybrids, Grain yield, Agro-morphological traits, Yield advantage, Winter season

References

References not available

Abstract

The Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary, a vital component of the Western Ghats biodiversity hotspot, remains under-explored regarding its insect diversity. This study presents the first comprehensive checklist of terrestrial Hemiptera from this sanctuary. Faunistic surveys conducted from 2019 to 2021 recorded 55 species belonging to 47 genera under 16 families. The families Pentatomidae (9 species), Rhyparochromidae (6 species), and Coreidae (5 species) exhibited the highest species richness. Specimens were collected from two primary locations, Heddanmane Halkal Junction and Aanejcom Buttely Camp, using standard entomological methods. Detailed collection data and global distribution notes for all species are provided. This baseline inventory fills a significant knowledge gap and underscores the sanctuary’simportance for hemipteran diversity and conservation in the region.

Keywords: Hemiptera, Biodiversity, Checklist, Western Ghats, Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary, Karnataka, Faunal Survey

References

References not available

Abstract

The study evaluated the effectiveness of a low-cost cold storage condition (CoolBot) in extending the shelf life of Green Chilli under different storage treatments. Six parameters viz., color retention, texture, bruising, rotting, weight loss and total remaining weight were studied across storage condition up to 27 days. Results revealed that the control treatment (T0) at room temperature exhibited rapid deterioration with complete loss of marketable quality within 9 DAS (days after storage). In contrast, all CoolBot treatments significantly delayed quality loss. Among them, Green Chilli stored under polythene covering (T4) showed superior color and texture retention up to 18 DAS (scores >4.0). It showed lowest bruising (1.33%) at 12 DAS and 20.67% at 21 DAS. Less rotting percentage (15%) at 18 DAS and (43.67%) at 21 DAS was also noticed in the same treatment. Weight loss was lowest under polythene coverings (T4) (6.37 kg loss at 27 DAS). The highest remaining Green Chilli weight at 21 DAS was observed in polythene covering (8.25 kg) and the second highest remaining weight was in newspaper coverings (7.73 kg). The findings demonstrate that CoolBot storage substantially prolongs Green Chilli shelf life compared to room temperature storage, with polythene covering (T4) providing the best short-term quality retention, maximum remaining weight and minimum loss during the study period. This suggests that CoolBot cold storage combined with appropriate packaging can serve as a cost-effective solution for reducing postharvest losses and improving Green Chilli marketability under Bangladesh condition.

Keywords: CoolBot Technology, Green Chilli, Shelf life, Weight loss

References

References not available

Abstract

A study was conducted to characterize the groundwater quality in the Dadri-IIblock of Charkhi Dadri district, Haryana. A total of 122 groundwater samples were collected from Dadri-IIand analyzed for key parameters. Based on Electrical Conductivity (EC), Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR), and Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC), the water samples were classified: 18.85% as good, 28.68% as marginally saline, 50.81% as high SAR-saline, and 1.6% as highly alkali. Electrical conductivity ranged from 0.26 to 13.95 dS m⁻¹, SAR from 1.42 to 36.39 (mmol L⁻¹)¹/², and RSC from nil to 5.40 me L⁻¹. Sodium was the dominant cation (1.10 to 98.70 me L⁻¹), and chloride was the dominant anion (1.20 to 101.20 me L⁻¹), followed by sulfate, bicarbonate, and carbonate. The spatial variability of these parameters was mapped, confirming that high SAR-saline water is the most widespread quality issue in the block, which has significant implications for irrigation management.

Keywords: Electrical conductivity, Residual Sodium Carbonate, SAR, Salinity, Sodicity, Groundwater, Spatial mapping

References

References not available

Abstract

The Temperature Induction Response (TIR) technique was standardized and employed to identify thermotolerant finger millet (Eleusine coracana L.) genotypes at the seedling stage. The technique involves exposing seedlings to a gradual sub-lethal temperature induction followed by a lethal temperature treatment, and subsequently assessing seedling recovery. Optimization of induction and lethal temperature regimes was based on percent seedling survival and percent reduction in root and shoot growth after a 72-hrecovery period. An induction treatment ranging from 37°C to 52°C over five hours, followed by exposure to a lethal temperature of 58°C for two hours, was identified as optimal for screening. Fifteen finger millet genotypes were evaluated under induced and non-induced conditions. Genotypes were classified based on seedling survival percentage and growth reduction parameters. Cultivar Tirumala and genotype VR-1099 exhibited the least reduction in root and shoot growth along with higher survival rates, indicating superior thermotolerance. The study demonstrates that the TIR technique is an effective and rapid phenotyping tool for identifying thermotolerant finger millet genotypes at the seedling stage, facilitating the efficient selection of parental lines for breeding heat-resilient varieties.

Keywords: Finger millet, Temperature induction response, Thermotolerance, Heat stress, Seedling screening

References

References not available

Abstract

Sericulture is an agrarian small-scale industry suited to marginal and small land holders, providing high returns and creating employment for family members. Studies indicate that the personal and socio-economic status of farmers significantly influences the adoption of improved sericulture practices. This study aimed to profile these characteristics among sericulture farmers in Malavalli taluk of Mandya district, Karnataka, India. Data were collected from 50 farmers across seven villages using a structured interview schedule. Results revealed that the majority of respondents were of middle age (60%), possessed primary or high school education (32%), had small family sizes (66%), and cultivated mulberry on less than one acre of land (60%). A significant proportion showed low involvement in social organizations, though limited participation was noted in milk cooperatives and mahila mandals. Conversely, a majority participated in at least one extension activity such as meetings, field visits, and training programs. The findings provide a baseline for understanding the farmer community and tailoring inclusive extension strategies to enhance technology adoption and socio-economic resilience in sericulture.

Keywords: Socio-economic profile, sericulture farmers, land holding, extension participation, Karnataka

References

References not available

Abstract

Climate change and land-use alterations are intensifying vulnerabilities in critical river basins, particularly within semi-arid agro-ecologies. This study assesses agro-ecology-specific climate risks, environmental degradation, and adaptation practices in the farming households of two contrasting watershed systems in Tamil Nadu: the Upper Vaigai (rainfed, drought-prone) and the Lower Palar (coastal, flood-prone). Primary data were collected from 200 farm households using a structured survey. The study found that the Upper Vaigai watershed is severely impacted by drought, leading to groundwater depletion, soil moisture deficits, and ecosystem degradation. In contrast, the Lower Palar watershed experiences intensive rainfall, cyclones, and floods, resulting in socioeconomic stresses such as migration and drinking water scarcity. While institutional mechanisms like MGNREGA, crop insurance, and extension services provided some adaptive support, implementation gaps persist. The findings underscore the need for location-specific strategies: enhancing soil and water conservation in Upper Vaigai and strengthening flood resilience and traditional water system management in Lower Palar. Integrating participatory GIS and ICT tools is recommended for building adaptive capacity across these climate-sensitive agro-ecologies.

Keywords: Climate vulnerability; watershed management; agro-ecology; adaptation strategies; Tamil Nadu

References

References not available

Abstract

Arunachal Pradesh, endowed with diverse agro-climatic conditions and rich biodiversity, possesses considerable potential for the cultivation of a wide range of horticultural crops, including fruits, spices, vegetables, ornamental and aromatic plants, medicinal plants, and plantation crops. Among these, three crops—orange, large cardamom, and apple—are extensively cultivated and together account for nearly 59 percent of the total area under horticultural crops in the state. Despite this significance, the production of these crops has shown a consistent decline over the past decade due to various constraining factors, including climate change.

The present study examines the status of orange, large cardamom, and apple in Arunachal Pradesh and compares the state’sperformance with other major producing states in India in terms of growth, productivity, and share in total national production. In addition, district-wise growth trends in area and production within Arunachal Pradesh are analyzed to capture intra-state variations. The study is based on secondary data collected from sources such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare, the Directorate of Horticulture, and published research articles. The analysis covers the period from 2013–14 to 2023–24, while district-level analysis is limited to 2018–19 to 2023–24, subject to data availability. The results reveal that the share of Arunachal Pradesh in the total area and production of all three crops declined considerably during the study period. The state recorded the highest negative growth in both area and production of these crops compared to other major producing states in the country. Moreover, the productivity of orange, large cardamom, and apple in Arunachal Pradesh was found to be among the lowest at the national level. The findings highlight the urgent need for targeted, crop-specific, and region-specific policy interventions to revitalize the horticultural sector in the state.

Keywords: Horticultural crops; Productivity; Growth; Agro-climatic conditions; Arunachal Pradesh

References

References not available

Abstract

Sericulture in the north-eastern region of India is unique in its socio-economic and cultural importance. Since all four varieties of silk—Mulberry, Tasar, and most importantly, Eri and Muga—are produced here, the region offers many opportunities for the rural economy, primarily empowering women. While possessing many potentials, sericulture in the north-eastern part of India is fraught with several problems, such as poor productivity, poor adoption of improved technologies, incidences of diseases and pests, poor quality of planting materials, poor infrastructural facilities, and poor marketing systems. The sector has seen improvement to an extent owing to advances in breeding, improvement in host plants, improved rearing practices, and supportive schemes. This review focuses on the importance, diversity, constraints, and future prospects of sericulture in the region. Taking advantage of the untapped potential of the region, proper alignment and intervention through technology can ensure success.

Keywords: Sericulture, Mulberry, Eri, Muga, Oak Tasar, Rural livelihood.

References

1. Grześkowiak, J., Łochyńska, M., & Frankowski, J. (2022). Sericulture in terms of sustainable development in agriculture. Problemy Ekorozwoju, *17*(2), 210-217. https://doi.org/10.35784/pe.2022.2.23
2. Devi, Y. S., Hossain, A., Lalremruatpuia, V., & Raviraj, V. S. (2024). Effect of UV radiation on physiological performance of silkworm Bombyx mori. Biological Forum, *16*(6), 221-229.
3. Natesh, S. (2008). Silk biotechnology unfurling new possibilities. Biotechnology News, *3*(5), 3.
4. Ghosh, A., Gangopadhyay, D., & Ray, M. (2019). Seribiodiversity and their role in sustainable development in India. International Journal of Plant and Environment, *5*(4), 243-246.
5. Baishya, M., Barman, H., & Rahman, S. A. S. (2019). Present status of eri-muga culture in NE region and related biodiversity resources as tool for sustainable economic uplifting of seri-stakeholders. International Journal of Life Sciences and Scientific Research, *5*(3), 2284-2290. https://iijls.com/currentissue/Html_SSR-IIJLS_1612.htm
6. Myers, N., Mittermeier, R. A., Mittermeier, C. G., da Fonseca, G. A. B., & Kent, J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature, *403*, 853-858.
7. Sharma, S., Bhagat, A. V., Bhalerao, S. S., Rambhai, P. K., & Rajput, Y. V. (2025). A conceptual review on sericulture in Northeast India: Viability, opportunities and policy pathways. Archives of Current Research International, *25*(9), 230-241.
8. Dewangan, S. K. (2013). Livelihood opportunities through sericultural model of Gharghoda tribal block, Raigarh dist. American Journal of Environmental Science, *9*(4), 343-347. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2013.343.347
9. Barah, B. C. (2007). Strategies for agricultural development in the North-East India: Challenges and emerging opportunities. Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, *62*(1).
10. Viswanathan, K. U. (2015). Is growth in agriculture propelled by its allied sectors in North-East India? Agricultural Economics Research Review, *28*, 69-80.
11. Arora, G. S. (1979). Taxonomic studies of some of the Indian non-mulberry silk moths (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae). Memoirs of the Zoological Survey of India, *16*, 11 pls.
12. Peigler, R. S., & Naumann, S. (2003). A revision of the silkmoth genus Samia (pp. 227+).
13. Narzary, D., & Boro, I. (2025). Silkworm rearing practices in northeast India: A review of traditional and scientific methods. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, *13*(4), 190-192. https://doi.org/10.22271/j.ento.2025.v13.i4c.9554
14. Seidel, C. L., & Peigler, R. S. (2018). Entomological aspects of sericulture based on Antheraea assamensis and Samia ricini (Saturniidae) in Assam and Meghalaya. Tropical Lepidoptera Research.
15. Keisa, T. J., Luikham, R., Singh, S., & Vijayakumari, K. M. (2022). Biodiversity of wild silkmoths in north eastern India. Plant Archives, *22*, 45-49.
16. Sarkar, K. (2020). Studies on the effect of different types of feeding on the commercial characters of mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) in West Bengal: A review. International Journal of Agriculture, Environment and Biotechnology, *13*(3), 305-321.
17. Vishaka, G. V., Rathore, M. S., Chandrashekharaiah, M., Nadaf, H. A., & Sinha, R. B. (2020). Tasar for tribes: A way of life. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies, *8*(1), 374-377.
18. Lokeshwari, R., & Shantibala, T. (2010). A review on the fascinating world of insect resources: Reason for thoughts. Psyche: A Journal of Entomology, *2010*.
19. Jolly, M. S., Narasimhanna, M. N., Sinha, S. S., & Sen, S. K. (1969). Interspecific hybridisation in Antheraea. Indian Journal of Heredity, *1*, 45-48.
20. Goel, R. K. (2017). Temperate tasar culture. In Industrial entomology (pp. 321-344). Springer Singapore.
21. Central Silk Board (CSB). (2025). Annual report 2024–25. Ministry of Textiles, Government of India.
22. Central Silk Board (CSB). (2024). Annual report 2023–24. Ministry of Textiles, Government of India.
23. Central Silk Board (CSB). (2023). Annual report 2022–23. Ministry of Textiles, Government of India.
24. Central Silk Board (CSB). (2022). Annual report 2021–22. Ministry of Textiles, Government of India.
25. Central Silk Board (CSB). (2021). Annual report 2020–21. Ministry of Textiles, Government of India.
26. Central Silk Board (CSB). (2020). Annual report 2019–20. Ministry of Textiles, Government of India.
27. Sarmah, M. C., Ahmed, S. A., & Sarkar, B. N. (2012). Research & technology development, byproduct management and prospects in Eri culture–A review. Munis Entomology & Zoology, *7*(2), 1006-1016.
28. Ahmed, S. A., Singh, N. I., & Sarkar, C. R. (2015). Role of forest biodiversity in conservation of non-mulberry (vanya) silk in India. Munis Entomology & Zoology, *10*(1), 342-357.
29. Singh, K. C., & Chakravorty, R. (2006). Present status and constraints of eri silkworm conservation in India. In Proceedings of the Strategies for Non-Mulberry Germplasm Maintenance (pp. 88-96). Jorhat, Assam, India.
30. Singh, S., Jigyasu, D., Subrahmanyam, G., Sangannavar, P., Kumar, R., Choudhury, B., & Vijayakumari, K. (2022). Conservation of muga silkworm, Antheraea assamensis Helfer in the natural habitats at different geographical location. Plant Archives, 9725210.
31. Neog, K., Gogoi, S. N., & Chakravorty, R. (2005). Present status and constraints of muga silkworm host plant germplasm conservation. In Proceedings of the Workshop on Strategies for Maintenance of Non-Mulberry Silkworm and Host Plant Germplasm (pp. 1-10). Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute, Lahdoigarh, Jorhat, Assam, India.
32. Arunkumar, K. P., Nath, D., Mahesh, D. S., Nath, U., Luikham, R., & Vijayakumari, K. M. (2022). A multipronged approach for improving seed availability during commercial rearing seasons in muga ecosystem. Plant Archives, *22*(Special Issue), 69-74.
33. Gogoi, R., Gogoi, G., Saud, R. K., Bhuyan, N., Barthakur, A. K., Neog, M., & Pathak, P. K. (2023). A study on constraints of ericulture in Dhemaji district of Assam. Indian Journal of Extension Education, *59*(1), 166-169.
34. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (n.d.). Introduction: Importance of sericulture in developing countries. https://www.fao.org/4/AD108E/ad108e0a.htm
35. Central Muga Eri Research and Training Institute. (n.d.). Overview. Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Government of India. https://cmerti.res.in/overview/
36. Directorate of Sericulture, Government of Manipur. (2019, January 15). A brief history of sericulture in Manipur. https://serimanipur.nic.in/en/brief-history-sericulture-manipur/
37. Sathyanarayana, K., Manjunatha, A. V., Devika, C. M., & Mishra, R. K. (2018). Mahila Kisan Sashaktkaran Pariyojana (MKSP): Reeling sustainability in the tasar sericulture based tribal livelihoods through alternative market support systems. Indian Journal of Agricultural Marketing, *32*(3S), 107-117. https://indianjournals.com/article/ijam-32-3s-011
38. Devi, Y. S., Hossain, A., Devi, W. S., Yumnam, D., Majumdar, S., & VS, R. (2025). Assessment of stable strains of eri silkworms (Samia ricini) for commercial silk production under the climate of Manipur. Advances in Research, *26*(1), 369-377.
39. Sapana, W., Singh, S., Surjalata, Y., Hossain, A., Yumnam, D., Majumdar, S., & Singh, S. (2024). Impact of seasonal variations on cocoon yield and its attributed traits of eri silkworm (Samia ricini, Donovan). Biological Forum, *16*(7), 336-340.
40. Devi, Y. S., Verma, A. K., Nalavadi, C., Hossain, A., & Pramanick, B. (2024). Optimizing preservation duration of mulberry silkworm crossbreed eggs in cold storage. Biological Forum, *16*(8), 249-356.

Abstract

Fecundity is an important reproductive feature in sericulture since it controls how many eggs a female silkworm produces and affects the availability of silkworm seed for commercial rearing. Hormones have an important role in controlling ovarian growth, oocyte maturation, vitellogenesis, transformation, and reproductive behaviour in the silkworm. Juvenile hormone (JH), ecdysteroids, particularly 20-hydroxyecdysone (20E), and insulin-related peptides are important endocrine regulators that influence ovarian growth, nutrition allocation, and reproductive physiology. Ecdysteroids are especially critical during pupal development, when the ovaries rapidly expand and convert to vitellogenesis. Insulin-like growth factor-like peptides also stimulate ovarian development, emphasising the link between hormonal signalling and food availability. However, reproductive performance depends on the coordinated action of several physiological and environmental factors rather than on a single hormone. This review investigates the primary hormonal pathways regulating silkworm fecundity, their prospective uses in sericulture, and the research gaps that must be filled to optimise female reproductive performance and seed production.

Keywords: Bombyx mori, fecundity, juvenile hormone, ecdysteroids, 20-hydroxyecdysone, ovarian development, vitellogenesis.

References

1. Prasad, S., & Upadhyay, V. B. (2012). Influence of 20-hydroxyecdysone on the larval performance of multivoltine mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori Linn.). African Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences, *4*(5), 146-154. https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.ajbas.2012.4.5.6412
2. Hussain, M., Khan, S. A., Naeem, M., & Nasir, M. F. (2011). Effect of rearing temperature and humidity on fecundity and fertility of silkworm, Bombyx mori L. (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae). Pakistan Journal of Zoology, *43*(5), 979-985.
3. Urbán-Duarte, D., Tomita, S., Sakai, H., Sezutsu, H., De La Torre-Sánchez, J. F., Kainoh, Y., Furukawa, S., & Uchino, K. (2023). An effective chemical permeabilization of silkworm embryos. Bioengineering, *10*(5), 563. https://doi.org/10.3390/bioengineering10050563
4. Upadhyay, V. B., Gaur, K. P., & Gupta, S. K. (2004). Effect of ecological factors on the silk producing potential of the mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori Linn.). Malaysian Applied Biology, *33*(1), 13-18.
5. Upadhyay, V. B., & Mishra, A. B. (2002). Influence of relative humidity on the nutritive potential of mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori Linn. larvae. Journal of Advanced Zoology, *23*(1), 54-58.
6. Pandey, A. K., & Upadhyay, V. B. (2000). Impact of refrigeration of eggs and pre-refrigeration period on the weight of shell of Bombyx mori Linn. Journal of Advanced Zoology, *21*(2), 98-101.
7. Upadhyay, V. B., Singh, R., & Prasad, S. (2006). Refrigeration of pupae influenced the hatchability and fecundity of Bombyx mori Linn. Malaysian Journal of Applied Biology, *35*(2), 13-19.
8. Upadhyay, V. B., Singh, R., & Prasad, S. (2009). Refrigeration of cocoons influences the pupal characteristics of multivoltine mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori Linn.). Journal of Applied Bioscience, *35*(2), 166-168.
9. Tripathi, S. K., & Upadhyay, V. B. (2005). Magnetization of eggs influences the incubation period of multivoltine mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori Linn.) eggs. Journal of Advanced Zoology, *26*(1), 24-28.
10. Magnetization of eggs on the reproductive potential of multivoltine mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori Linn.). (n.d.). Indian Journal of Sericulture, *44*(2), 212-214.
11. Upadhyay, V. B., & Tripathi, S. K. (2006). Effect of magnetization of eggs on the silk producing potential of multivoltine mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori Linn.). Sericologia, *46*(3), 269-278.
12. Upadhyay, V. B., & Prasad, S. (2010a). Magnetization for the improvement of silk producing potential in multivoltine mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori Linn). The Bioscan, *5*(2), 285-289.
13. Upadhyay, V. B., & Prasad, S. (2010b). Biotechnological importance of cocoon magnetization with particular reference to the reproductive potential of multivoltine mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori Linn). Sericologia, *50*(4), 461-672.
14. Prasad, S., & Upadhyay, V. B. (2011). Biotechnological importance of cocoon magnetization with particular reference to the larval performance of multivoltine mulberry silkworm (Bombyx mori Linn.). Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, *10*(5), 565-572.
15. Pandeville, E., Maria, A., Jacques, J. C., Bourgouin, C., & Villemant, C. D. (2008). Anopheles gambiae males produce and transfer the vitellogenic steroid hormone 20-hydroxyecdysone to females during mating. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, *105*(50), 619-631.
16. Parlak, O., Sakurai, S., Kaya, M., & Ohotaki, T. (1992). Content and possible role of ecdysteroids in the larval ovary of the silkworm Bombyx mori. Invertebrate Reproduction & Development, *21*, 1-6.
17. Kawaguchi, Y., Banno, Y., Koga, K., Doira, H., & Fuji, H. (1993). Polygonal patterns on egg shells of giant egg mutant and large egg induced by 20-hydroxyecdysone in Bombyx mori. Journal of Insect Physiology, *36*, 437-443.
18. Okuda, K. K., Amornsak, W., & Yamashita, O. (1993). Controlled ecdysteroid accumulation in eggs of silkworm Bombyx mori L. by an imidazole compound (KK42) and embryogenesis in these eggs. Archives of Biochemistry and Physiology, *25*(2), 121-135.
19. Hentze, J. L., Moeller, M. E., Jørgensen, A. F., Bengtsson, M. S., Bordoy, A. M., Warren, J. T., Gilbert, L. I., Andersen, O., & Rewitz, K. F. (2013). Accessory gland as a site for prothoracicotropic hormone controlled ecdysone synthesis in adult male insects. PLoS ONE, *8*(2), e55131. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055131
20. Mirth, C. K., Tang, H. Y., Makohon-Moore, S. C., Salhadar, S., Gokhale, R. H., Warner, R. D., Koyama, T., Riddiford, L. M., & Shingleton, A. W. (2014). Juvenile hormone regulates body size and perturbs insulin signaling in Drosophila. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, *111*(19), 7018-7023. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1313058111
21. Ishimoto, H., & Kitamoto, T. (2010). The steroid molting hormone ecdysone regulates sleep in adult Drosophila melanogaster. Genetics, *185*(1), 269-281. https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.110.114587
22. Song, J., Wu, Z., Wang, Z., Deng, S., & Zhou, S. (2014). Krüppel-homolog 1 mediates juvenile hormone action to promote vitellogenesis and oocyte maturation in the migratory locust. Insect Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, *52*, 94-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibmb.2014.07.001
23. Uryu, O., Ou, Q., Komura-Kawa, T., Kamiyama, T., Iga, M., Syrzycka, M., Hirota, K., et al. (2018). Cooperative control of ecdysone biosynthesis in Drosophila by transcription factors Séance, Ouija Board, and Molting Defective. Genetics, *208*(2), 605-622. https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.117.300268
24. Daimon, T., & Shinoda, T. (2013). Function, diversity, and application of insect juvenile hormone epoxidases (CYP15). Biotechnology and Applied Biochemistry, *60*(1), 82-91. https://doi.org/10.1002/bab.1058
25. Minakuchi, C., & Riddiford, L. M. (2006). Insect juvenile hormone action as a potential target of pest management. Journal of Pesticide Science, *31*(2), 77-84. https://doi.org/10.1584/jpestics.31.77
26. Hua-jun, Y., Fang, Z., Awquib, S., Malik, F. A., Roy, B., Xing-hua, L., Jia-biao, H., et al. (2011). Expression pattern of enzymes related to juvenile hormone metabolism in the silkworm, Bombyx mori L. Molecular Biology Reports, *38*(7), 4337-4342. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11033-010-0559-3
27. Judy, K. J., Schooley, D. A., Dunham, L. L., Hall, M. S., Bergot, B. J., & Siddall, J. B. (1973). Isolation, structure, and absolute configuration of a new natural insect juvenile hormone from Manduca sexta. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, *70*(5), 1509-1513. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.70.5.1509
28. Roy, S., Saha, T. T., Zou, Z., & Raikhel, A. S. (2018). Regulatory pathways controlling female insect reproduction. Annual Review of Entomology, *63*(1), 489-511. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-020117-043258
29. Kotaki, T., Shinada, T., Kaihara, K., Ohfune, Y., & Numata, H. (2009). Structure determination of a new juvenile hormone from a heteropteran insect. Organic Letters, *11*(22), 5234-5237. https://doi.org/10.1021/ol902161x
30. Daimon, T., Uchibori, M., Nakao, H., Sezutsu, H., & Shinoda, T. (2015). Knockout silkworms reveal a dispensable role for juvenile hormones in holometabolous life cycle. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, *112*(31). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1506645112
31. Wyatt, G. R., & Davey, K. G. (1996). Cellular and molecular actions of juvenile hormone. II. Roles of juvenile hormone in adult insects. In Advances in insect physiology (pp. 1-155). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2806(08)60030-2
32. Bellés, X., Martín, D., & Piulachs, M.-D. (2005). The mevalonate pathway and the synthesis of juvenile hormone in insects. Annual Review of Entomology, *50*(1), 181-199. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130356
33. Goodman, W. G., & Granger, N. A. (2005). The juvenile hormones. In Comprehensive molecular insect science (pp. 319-408). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-44-451924-6/00039-9
34. Cheng, D., Meng, M., Peng, J., Qian, W., Kang, L., & Xia, Q. (2014). Genome-wide comparison of genes involved in the biosynthesis, metabolism, and signaling of juvenile hormone between silkworm and other insects. Genetics and Molecular Biology, *37*(2), 444-459. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1415-47572014005000006
35. Dominguez, C. V., & Maestro, J. L. (2018). Expression of juvenile hormone acid O-methyltransferase and juvenile hormone synthesis in Blattella germanica. Insect Science, *25*(5), 787-796. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7917.12467
36. Wu, Z., Yu, J., Zhu, A., & Nakanishi, H. (2016). Nutrients, microglia aging, and brain aging. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, *2016*(1), 7498528. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/7498528
37. Gijbels, M., Lenaerts, C., Vanden Broeck, J., & Marchal, E. (2019). Juvenile hormone receptor Met is essential for ovarian maturation in the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria. Scientific Reports, *9*(1), 10797. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-47253-x
38. Zheng, H., Wang, N., Yun, J., Xu, H., Yang, J., & Zhou, S. (2022). Juvenile hormone promotes paracellular transport of yolk proteins via remodeling zonula adherens at tricellular junctions in the follicular epithelium. PLOS Genetics, *18*(6), e1010292. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1010292
39. Khalid, M. Z., Ahmad, S., Ngegba, P. M., & Zhong, G. (2021). Role of endocrine system in the regulation of female insect reproduction. Biology, *10*(7), 614. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10070614
40. Zhu, Z., Tong, C., Qiu, B., Yang, H., Xu, J., Zheng, S., Song, Q., Feng, Q., & Deng, H. (2021). 20E-mediated regulation of BmKr-H1 by BmKRP promotes oocyte maturation. BMC Biology, *19*(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12915-021-00952-2
41. Bellés, X. (2019). The metamorphosis of insects and their regulation. Comptes Rendus Biologies, *342*(7-8), 254-256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2019.09.009
42. Dubrovsky, E. (2005). Hormonal cross talk in insect development. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism, *16*(1), 6-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2004.11.003
43. Truman, J. W. (2019). The evolution of insect metamorphosis. Current Biology, *29*(23), R1252-R1268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2019.10.009
44. Truman, J. W., & Riddiford, L. M. (2019). The evolution of insect metamorphosis: A developmental and endocrine view. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, *374*(1783), 20190070. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2019.0070
45. Fujinaga, D., Shiomi, K., Yagi, Y., Kataoka, H., & Mizoguchi, A. (2019). An insulin-like growth factor-like peptide promotes ovarian development in the silkmoth Bombyx mori. Scientific Reports, *9*, Article 18446. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-54962-w
46. Suchida, K., Nagata, M., & Suzuki, A. (1987). Hormonal control of ovarian development in the silkworm, Bombyx mori. Archives of Insect Biochemistry and Physiology, *5*(3), 167-177. https://doi.org/10.1002/arch.940050303
47. Shwetha, G. V., Gagana Sindhu, S., Kankanawadi, N., Shravanilakshmi, V., Veenita, M. K., & Aramani, K. (2025). A review on effect of juvenile hormone analogues on growth and development of silkworm (Bombyx mori L.). Journal of Experimental Agriculture International, *47*(8), 17-24. https://doi.org/10.9734/jeai/2025/v47i83644
48. Zhang, M., Xu, P., & Chen, T. (2021). Hemolymph ecdysteroid titer affects maternal mRNAs during Bombyx mori oogenesis. Insects, *12*(11), Article 969. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects12110969
49. Wang, Y., Fu, Y., Cheng, H., Zhao, C., Huang, Q., Chang, M., Qiu, W., Shen, Y., & Li, D. (2023). lncR26319/miR-2834/EndophilinA axis regulates oogenesis of the silkworm, Bombyx mori. Insect Science, *30*(1), 65-80. https://doi.org/10.1111/1744-7917.13082.

Abstract

Conservation agriculture (CA), which rests on minimal soil disturbance, permanent soil cover and crop diversification, is widely promoted as a route to sustainable intensification, yet its effects on soil are neither uniform nor immediate. This review synthesises published evidence on how CA influences soil physical, chemical and biological properties, using soil organic carbon (SOC) as a unifying thread. Where climate and soil favour biomass production and management is well adapted, CA generally improves aggregate stability, infiltration, water storage and erosion control; it raises SOC and nutrient stocks, mainly in the topsoil; and it enhances microbial biomass, diversity, enzyme activity and macrofauna. Findings are far less consistent for bulk density, pH, cation exchange capacity and soil respiration. Nutrient stratification, compaction, surface sealing, waterlogging, cooler seedbeds and weed or disease pressure can offset the gains where residue production is poor, climates are cold and wet, or systems are not locally adapted. Benefits commonly take several years to appear. CA is therefore best understood as a flexible set of locally adapted practices rather than a fixed package. Priorities for future work include strategic tillage, locally suited rotations and fertiliser management, whole-profile and seasonal sampling, and standardised soil health indicators.

Keywords: conservation agriculture, no-till, soil health, soil organic carbon, soil properties, sustainability.

References

1. Abazi, U., Lorite, I. J., Cárceles, R. B., Martínez, R. A., Durán, Z. V. H., Francia, M. J. R., & Gómez, J. A. (2013). WABOL: A conceptual water balance model for analyzing rainfall water use in olive orchards under different soil and cover crop management strategies. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, *91*, 35-48.
2. Aguilera, E., Lassaletta, L., Gattinger, A., & Gimeno, B. S. (2013). Managing soil carbon for climate change mitigation and adaptation in Mediterranean cropping systems: A meta-analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *168*, 25-36.
3. Andersson, J. A., & D'Souza, S. (2014). From adoption claims to understanding farmers and contexts: A literature review of Conservation Agriculture (CA) adoption among smallholder farmers in southern Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *187*, 116-132.
4. Andrews, S. S., Karlen, D. L., & Mitchell, J. P. (2002). A comparison of soil quality indexing methods for vegetable production systems in Northern California. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *90*, 25-45.
5. Baldivieso-Freitas, P., Blanco, M. J. M., Gutiérrez, L. M., Peigné, J., Pérez, F. A., Trigo, A. D., & Sans, F. X. (2018). Earthworm abundance response to conservation agriculture practices in organic arable farming under Mediterranean climate. Pedobiologia, *66*, 58-64.
6. Banerjee, T., Sharma, S., Thind, H. S., Yadvinder-Singh, Sidhu, H. S., & Jat, M. L. (2017). Soil biochemical changes at different wheat growth stages in response to conservation agriculture practices in a rice-wheat system of north-western India. Soil Research, *56*, 91-104.
7. Baudron, F., Tittonell, P., Corbeels, M., Letourmy, P., & Giller, K. E. (2012). Comparative performance of conservation agriculture and current smallholder farming practices in semi-arid Zimbabwe. Field Crops Research, *132*, 117-128.
8. Baumhardt, R. L., & Lascano, R. J. (1996). Rain infiltration as affected by wheat residue amount and distribution in ridged tillage. Soil Science Society of America Journal, *60*, 1908-1913.
9. Bayer, C., Lovato, T., Dieckow, J., Zanatta, J. A., & Mielniczuk, J. (2006). A method for estimating coefficients of soil organic matter dynamics based on long-term experiments. Soil and Tillage Research, *91*, 217-226.
10. Bera, T., Sharma, S., Thind, H. S., Sidhu, H. S., & Jat, M. L. (2018). Changes in soil biochemical indicators at different wheat growth stages under conservation-based sustainable intensification of rice-wheat system. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, *17*, 1871-1880.
11. Bernoux, M., Cerri, C. C., Cerri, C. E. P., Siqueira-Neto, M., Metay, A., Perrin, A. S., et al. (2006). Cropping systems, carbon sequestration and erosion in Brazil, a review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *26*, 1-8.
12. Bhan, S., & Behera, U. K. (2014). Conservation agriculture in India – Problems, prospects and policy issues. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, *2*, 1-12.
13. Blanco-Canqui, H., & Ruis, S. J. (2018). No-tillage and soil physical environment. Geoderma, *326*, 164-200.
14. Bockus, W. W., & Shroyer, J. P. (1998). The impact of reduced tillage on soilborne plant pathogens. Annual Review of Phytopathology, *36*, 485-500.
15. Bonfante, A., Basile, A., & Bouma, J. (2020). Targeting the soil quality and soil health concepts when aiming for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and the EU Green Deal. Soil, *6*, 453-466.
16. Briones, M. J. I., & Schmidt, O. (2017). Conventional tillage decreases the abundance and biomass of earthworms and alters their community structure in a global meta-analysis. Global Change Biology, *23*, 4396-4419.
17. Bronick, C. J., & Lal, R. (2005). Soil structure and management: A review. Geoderma, *124*, 3-22.
18. Brown, B., Nuberg, I., & Llewellyn, R. (2017). Negative evaluation of conservation agriculture: Perspectives from African smallholder farmers. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, *15*, 467-481.
19. Bünemann, E. K., Bongiorno, G., Bai, Z., Creamer, R. E., De Deyn, G., de Goede, R., et al. (2018). Soil quality – A critical review. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *120*, 105-125.
20. Butterly, C. R., Baldock, J. A., & Tang, C. (2013). The contribution of crop residues to changes in soil pH under field conditions. Plant and Soil, *366*, 185-198.
21. Camarotto, C., Piccoli, I., Dal Ferro, N., Polese, R., Chiarini, F., Furlan, L., & Morari, F. (2020). Have we reached the turning point? Looking for evidence of SOC increase under conservation agriculture and cover crop practices. European Journal of Soil Science, *71*, 1050-1063.
22. Cárceles Rodríguez, B., Durán-Zuazo, V. H., Soriano Rodríguez, M., García-Tejero, I. F., Gálvez Ruiz, B., & Cuadros Tavira, S. (2022). Conservation agriculture as a sustainable system for soil health: A review. Soil Systems, *6*, 87.
23. Cárceles, B., Durán, Z. V. H., Soriano, R. M., Gálvez, R. B., & García, T. I. F. (2021). Soil erosion and the effectiveness of the conservation measures in Mediterranean hillslope farming (SE Spain). Eurasian Soil Science, *54*, 792-806.
24. Castellanos-Navarrete, A., Rodríguez, A. C., de Goede, R. G. M., Kooistra, M. J., Sayre, K. D., Brussaard, L., & Pulleman, M. M. (2012). Earthworm activity and soil structural changes under conservation agriculture in central Mexico. Soil and Tillage Research, *123*, 61-70.
25. Ceja-Navarro, J. A., Rivera, F. N., Patiño-Zúñiga, L., Govaerts, B., Marsch, R., Vila-Sanjurjo, A., & Dendooven, L. (2010). Molecular characterization of soil bacterial communities in contrasting zero tillage systems. Plant and Soil, *329*, 127-137.
26. Chan, K. Y. (2001). An overview of some tillage impacts on earthworm population abundance and diversity – Implications for functioning in soils. Soil and Tillage Research, *57*, 179-191.
27. Cheesman, S., Thierfelder, C., Eash, N. S., Kassie, G. T., & Frossard, E. (2016). Soil carbon stocks in conservation agriculture systems of Southern Africa. Soil and Tillage Research, *156*, 99-109.
28. Chen, S. Y., Zhang, X. Y., Pei, D., Sun, H. Y., & Chen, S. (2007). Effects of straw mulching on soil temperature, evaporation and yield of winter wheat: Field experiments on the North China Plain. Annals of Applied Biology, *150*, 261-268.
29. Choudhary, M., Datta, A., Jat, H. S., Yadav, A. K., Gathala, M. K., Sapkota, T. B., et al. (2018). Changes in soil biology under conservation agriculture based sustainable intensification of cereal systems in Indo-Gangetic Plains. Geoderma, *313*, 193-204.
30. Christopher, S. F., Lal, R., & Mishra, U. (2009). Regional study of no-till effects on carbon sequestration in the Midwestern United States. Soil Science Society of America Journal, *73*, 207-216.
31. Cooper, R. J., Hama-Aziz, Z. Q., Hiscock, K. M., Lovett, A. A., Vrain, E., Dugdale, S. J., et al. (2020). Conservation tillage and soil health: Lessons from a 5-year UK farm trial (2013–2018). Soil and Tillage Research, *202*, 104648.
32. Dang, Y. P., Balzer, A., Crawford, M., Rincon-Florez, V., Liu, H., Melland, A. R., et al. (2018). Strategic tillage in conservation agricultural systems of north-eastern Australia: Why, where, when and how? Environmental Science and Pollution Research, *25*, 1000-1015.
33. Dang, Y. P., Seymour, N. P., Walker, S. R., Bell, M. J., & Freebairn, D. M. (2015). Strategic tillage in no-till farming systems in Australia's northern grains-growing regions: I. Drivers and implementation. Soil and Tillage Research, *152*, 104-114.
34. Derpsch, R., Friedrich, T., Kassam, A., & Li, H. (2010). Current status of adoption of no-till farming in the world and some of its main benefits. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, *3*, 1-25.
35. Deubel, A., Hofmann, B., & Orzessek, D. (2011). Long-term effects of tillage on stratification and plant availability of phosphate and potassium in a loess chernozem. Soil and Tillage Research, *117*, 85-92.
36. Doran, J. W., & Zeiss, M. R. (2000). Soil health and sustainability: Managing the biotic component of soil quality. Applied Soil Ecology, *15*, 3-11.
37. dos Santos, N. Z., Dieckow, J., Bayer, C., Molin, R., Favaretto, N., Pauletti, V., et al. (2011). Forages, cover crops and related shoot and root additions in no-till rotations to C sequestration in a subtropical Ferralsol. Soil and Tillage Research, *111*, 208-218.
38. Du, X., Jian, J., Du, C., & Stewart, R. D. (2022). Conservation management decreases surface runoff and soil erosion. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, *10*, 188-196.
39. Du, Z., Angers, D. A., Ren, T., Zhang, Q., & Li, G. (2017). The effect of no-till on organic C storage in Chinese soils should not be overemphasized: A meta-analysis. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *236*, 1-11.
40. Durán, Z. V. H., & Rodríguez, P. C. R. (2008). Soil-erosion and runoff prevention by plant covers. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *28*, 65-86.
41. Durán, Z. V. H., Rodríguez, P. C. R., Arroyo, P. L., Martínez, R. A., Francia, M. J. R., & Cárceles, R. B. (2009). Soil conservation measures in rainfed olive orchards in South-Eastern Spain: Impacts of plant strips on soil water dynamics. Pedosphere, *19*, 453-464.
42. Eze, S., Dougill, A. J., Banwart, S. A., Hermans, T. D. G., Ligowe, I. S., & Thierfelder, C. (2020). Impacts of conservation agriculture on soil structure and hydraulic properties of Malawian agricultural systems. Soil and Tillage Research, *201*, 104639.
43. Farooq, M., Flower, K. C., Jabran, K., Wahid, A., & Siddique, K. H. M. (2011). Crop yield and weed management in rainfed conservation agriculture. Soil and Tillage Research, *117*, 172-183.
44. Fierer, N., Wood, S. A., & Bueno de Mesquita, C. P. (2021). How microbes can, and cannot, be used to assess soil health. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *153*, 108111.
45. Fonteyne, S., Burgueño, J., Albarrán Contreras, B. A., Andrio Enríquez, E., Castillo Villaseñor, L., Enyanche Velázquez, F., et al. (2021). Effects of conservation agriculture on physicochemical soil health in 20 maize-based trials in different agro-ecological regions across Mexico. Land Degradation & Development, *32*, 2242-2256.
46. Giller, K. E., Andersson, J. A., Corbeels, M., Kirkegaard, J., Mortensen, D., Erenstein, O., & Vanlauwe, B. (2015). Beyond conservation agriculture. Frontiers in Plant Science, *6*, 870.
47. González-Chávez, M. D. C. A., Aitkenhead-Peterson, J. A., Gentry, T. J., Zuberer, D., Hons, F., & Loeppert, R. (2010). Soil microbial community, C, N, and P responses to long-term tillage and crop rotation. Soil and Tillage Research, *106*, 285-293.
48. González-Sánchez, E. J., Ordóñez-Fernández, R., Carbonell-Bojollo, R., Veroz-González, O., & Gil-Ribes, J. A. (2012). Meta-analysis on atmospheric carbon capture in Spain through the use of conservation agriculture. Soil and Tillage Research, *122*, 52-60.
49. Govaerts, B., Mezzalama, M., Unno, Y., Sayre, K. D., Luna-Guido, M., Vanherck, K., et al. (2007). Influence of tillage, residue management, and crop rotation on soil microbial biomass and catabolic diversity. Applied Soil Ecology, *37*, 18-30.
50. Gupta, R., & Sayre, K. (2007). Conservation agriculture in South Asia. Journal of Agricultural Science, *145*, 207-214.
51. Gyawali, A. J., Strickland, M. S., Thomason, W., Reiter, M., & Stewart, R. (2022). Quantifying short-term responsiveness and consistency of soil health parameters in row crop systems: Part 1: Developing a multivariate approach. Soil and Tillage Research, *219*, 105354.
52. Helgason, B. L., Walley, F. L., & Germida, J. J. (2010). No-till soil management increases microbial biomass and alters community profiles in soil aggregates. Applied Soil Ecology, *46*, 390-397.
53. Henneron, L., Bernard, L., Hedde, M., Pelosi, C., Villenave, C., Chenu, C., Bertrand, M., Girardin, C., & Blanchart, E. (2015). Fourteen years of evidence for positive effects of conservation agriculture and organic farming on soil life. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *35*, 169-181.
54. Holland, J. M. (2004). The environmental consequences of adopting conservation tillage in Europe: Reviewing the evidence. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *103*, 1-25.
55. Islam, R., & Reeder, R. (2014). No-till and conservation agriculture in the United States: An example from the David Brandt farm, Carroll, Ohio. International Soil and Water Conservation Research, *2*, 97-107.
56. Johnson, J. M. F., Reicosky, D. C., Allmaras, R. R., Sauer, T. J., Venterea, R. T., & Dell, C. J. (2005). Greenhouse gas contributions and mitigation potential of agriculture in the central USA. Soil and Tillage Research, *83*, 73-94.
57. Kahimba, F., Sri Ranjan, R., Froese, J., Entz, M., & Nason, R. (2008). Cover crop effects on infiltration, soil temperature, and soil moisture distribution in the Canadian prairies. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, *24*, 321-333.
58. Kandeler, E., Palli, S., Stemmer, M., & Gerzabek, M. H. (1999). Tillage changes microbial biomass and enzyme activities in particle-size fractions of a Haplic Chernozem. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *31*, 1253-1264.
59. Kassam, A., Friedrich, T., & Derpsch, R. (2019). Global spread of Conservation Agriculture. International Journal of Environmental Studies, *76*, 29-51.
60. Kassam, A., Friedrich, T., Shaxson, F., & Pretty, J. (2009). The spread of Conservation Agriculture: Justification, sustainability and uptake. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, *7*, 292-320.
61. Kibblewhite, M. G., Ritz, K., & Swift, M. J. (2008). Soil health in agricultural systems. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, *363*, 685-701.
62. Kirkegaard, J. A., Conyers, M. K., Hunt, J. R., Kirkby, C. A., Watt, M., & Rebetzke, G. J. (2014). Sense and nonsense in conservation agriculture: Principles, pragmatism and productivity in Australian mixed farming systems. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *187*, 133-145.
63. Kladivko, E. J. (2001). Tillage systems and soil ecology. Soil and Tillage Research, *61*, 61-76.
64. Knapp, S., & van der Heijden, M. G. A. (2018). A global meta-analysis of yield stability in organic and conservation agriculture. Nature Communications, *9*, 3632.
65. Kurothe, R. S., Kumar, G., Singh, R., Singh, H. B., Tiwari, S. P., Vishwakarma, A. K., Sena, D. R., & Pande, V. C. (2014). Effect of tillage and cropping systems on runoff, soil loss and crop yields under semiarid rainfed agriculture in India. Soil and Tillage Research, *140*, 126-134.
66. Laishram, J., Saxena, K. G., Maikhuri, R. K., & Rao, K. S. (2012). Soil quality and soil health: A review. International Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, *38*, 19-37.
67. Lal, R. (2015). Sequestering carbon and increasing productivity by conservation agriculture. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, *70*, 55A-62A.
68. Legrand, F., Picot, A., Cobo, D. J. F., Carof, M., Chen, W., & Le Floch, G. (2018). Effect of tillage and static abiotic soil properties on microbial diversity. Applied Soil Ecology, *132*, 135-145.
69. Lehmann, J., Bossio, D. A., Kögel-Knabner, I., & Rillig, M. C. (2020). The concept and future prospects of soil health. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, *1*, 544-553.
70. Li, Y., Chang, S. X., Tian, L., & Zhang, Q. (2018). Conservation agriculture practices increase soil microbial biomass carbon and nitrogen in agricultural soils: A global meta-analysis. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *121*, 50-58.
71. Li, Y., Li, Z., Chang, S. X., Cui, S., Jagadamma, S., Zhang, Q., & Cai, Y. (2020). Residue retention promotes soil carbon accumulation in minimum tillage systems: Implications for conservation agriculture. Science of the Total Environment, *740*, 140147.
72. Li, Y., Li, Z., Cui, S., Jagadamma, S., & Zhang, Q. P. (2019). Residue retention and minimum tillage improve physical environment of the soil in croplands: A global meta-analysis. Soil and Tillage Research, *194*, 104292.
73. Limousin, G., & Tessier, D. (2007). Effects of no-tillage on chemical gradients and topsoil acidification. Soil and Tillage Research, *92*, 167-174.
74. Luo, Z., Wang, E., & Sun, O. J. (2010). Can no-tillage stimulate carbon sequestration in agricultural soils? A meta-analysis of paired experiments. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *139*, 224-231.
75. Mangalassery, S., Mooney, S. J., Sparkes, D. L., Fraser, W. T., & Sjögersten, S. (2015a). Impacts of zero tillage on soil enzyme activities, microbial characteristics and organic matter functional chemistry in temperate soils. European Journal of Soil Biology, *68*, 9-17.
76. Mangalassery, S., Sjögersten, S., Sparkes, D. L., & Mooney, S. J. (2015b). Examining the potential for climate change mitigation from zero tillage. Journal of Agricultural Science, *153*, 1151-1173.
77. Mbuthia, L. W., Acosta-Martínez, V., DeBruyn, J., Schaeffer, S., Tyler, D., Odoi, E., et al. (2015). Long term tillage, cover crop, and fertilization effects on microbial community structure, activity: Implications for soil quality. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *89*, 24-34.
78. Mondal, S., Chakraborty, D., Bandyopadhyay, K., Aggarwal, P., & Rana, D. S. (2020). A global analysis of the impact of zero-tillage on soil physical condition, organic carbon content, and plant root response. Land Degradation & Development, *31*, 557-567.
79. Mondal, S., Mishra, J. S., Poonia, S. P., Kumar, R., Dubey, R., Kumar, S., Verma, M., Rao, K. K., Ahmed, A., Dwivedi, S., et al. (2021). Can yield, soil C and aggregation be improved under long-term conservation agriculture in the eastern Indo-Gangetic plain of India? European Journal of Soil Science, *72*, 1742-1761.
80. Montgomery, D. R. (2007). Soil erosion and agricultural sustainability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, *104*, 13268-13272.
81. Morugán, C. A., Linares, P. C., Gómez, L. M. D., Faz, A., & Zornoza, R. (2020). The impact of intercropping, tillage and fertilizer type on soil and crop yield in fruit orchards under Mediterranean conditions: A meta-analysis of field studies. Agricultural Systems, *178*, 102736.
82. Mrabet, R., Moussadek, R., Fadlaoui, A., & van Ranst, E. (2012). Conservation agriculture in dry areas of Morocco. Field Crops Research, *132*, 84-94.
83. Muchabi, J., Lungu, O. I., & Mweetwa, A. M. (2014). Conservation agriculture in Zambia: Effects on selected soil properties and biological nitrogen fixation in soya beans (Glycine max (L.) Merr). Sustainable Agriculture Research, *3*, 28-36.
84. Munkholm, L. J., Schjønning, P., Rasmussen, K. J., & Tanderup, K. (2003). Spatial and temporal effects of direct drilling on soil structure in the seedling environment. Soil and Tillage Research, *71*, 163-173.
85. Muoni, T., Mhlanga, B., Forkman, J., Sitali, M., & Thierfelder, C. (2019). Tillage and crop rotations enhance populations of earthworms, termites, dung beetles and centipedes: Evidence from a long-term trial in Zambia. Journal of Agricultural Science, *157*, 504-514.
86. Nunes, M. R., van Es, H. M., Schindelbeck, R., Ristow, A. J., & Ryan, M. (2018). No-till and cropping system diversification improve soil health and crop yield. Geoderma, *328*, 30-43.
87. Nyamangara, J., Marondedze, A., Masvaya, E. N., Mawodza, T., Nyawasha, R., Nyengerai, K., et al. (2014). Influence of basin-based conservation agriculture on selected soil quality parameters under smallholder farming in Zimbabwe. Soil Use and Management, *30*, 550-559.
88. O'Leary, G. J., & Connor, D. J. (1997). Stubble retention and tillage in a semi-arid environment: 2. Soil mineral nitrogen accumulation during fallow. Field Crops Research, *52*, 221-229.
89. Ogle, S., Alsaker, C., Baldock, J., Bernoux, M., Breidt, F., McConkey, B. G., et al. (2019). Climate and soil characteristics determine where no-till management can store carbon in soils and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Scientific Reports, *9*, 11665.
90. Oliveira, J., Timm, L., Tominaga, T., Cássaro, F. A. M., Reichardt, K., Bacchi, O. O. S., et al. (2001). Soil temperature in a sugar-cane crop as a function of the management system. Plant and Soil, *230*, 61-66.
91. Page, K. L., Dang, Y. P., & Dalal, R. C. (2020). The ability of conservation agriculture to conserve soil organic carbon and the subsequent impact on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties and yield. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, *4*, 31.
92. Page, K. L., Dang, Y. P., Dalal, R. C., Reeves, S., Thomas, G., Wang, W., et al. (2019). Changes in soil water storage with no-tillage and crop residue retention on a Vertisol: Impact on productivity and profitability over a 50 year period. Soil and Tillage Research, *194*, 104319.
93. Pandey, D., Agrawal, M., & Bohra, J. S. (2014). Effects of conventional tillage and no tillage permutations on extracellular soil enzyme activities and microbial biomass under rice cultivation. Soil and Tillage Research, *136*, 51-60.
94. Pankhurst, C. E., McDonald, H. J., Hawke, B. G., & Kirkby, C. A. (2002). Effect of tillage and stubble management on chemical and microbiological properties and the development of suppression towards cereal root disease in soils from two sites in NSW, Australia. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *34*, 833-840.
95. Parihar, C. M., Yadav, M. R., Jat, S. L., Singh, A. K., Kumar, B., Pradhan, S., et al. (2016). Long term effect of conservation agriculture in maize rotations on total organic carbon, physical and biological properties of a sandy loam soil in north-western Indo-Gangetic Plains. Soil and Tillage Research, *161*, 116-128.
96. Paulitz, T. C., Schroeder, K. L., & Schillinger, W. F. (2010). Soilborne pathogens of cereals in an irrigated cropping system: Effects of tillage, residue management, and crop rotation. Plant Disease, *94*, 61-68.
97. Pelosi, C., Pey, B., Hedde, M., Caro, G., Capowiez, Y., Guernion, M., et al. (2014). Reducing tillage in cultivated fields increases earthworm functional diversity. Applied Soil Ecology, *83*, 79-87.
98. Peters, R. D., Sturz, A. V., Carter, M. R., & Sanderson, J. B. (2003). Developing disease-suppressive soils through crop rotation and tillage management practices. Soil and Tillage Research, *72*, 181-192.
99. Pittelkow, C. M., Liang, X., Linquist, B. A., van Groenigen, K. J., Lee, J., Lundy, M. E., et al. (2015). Productivity limits and potentials of the principles of conservation agriculture. Nature, *517*, 365-368.
100. Pooniya, V., Biswakarma, N., Parihar, C. M., Swarnalakshmi, K., Lama, A., Zhiipao, R. R., et al. (2021). Six years of conservation agriculture and nutrient management in maize–mustard rotation: Impact on soil properties, system productivity and profitability. Field Crops Research, *260*, 108002.
101. Powlson, D. S., Stirling, C. M., Thierfelder, C., White, R. P., & Jat, M. L. (2016). Does conservation agriculture deliver climate change mitigation through soil carbon sequestration in tropical agro-ecosystems? Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *220*, 164-174.
102. Ranaivoson, L., Naudin, K., Ripoche, A., Affholder, F., Rabeharisoa, L., & Corbeels, M. (2017). Agro-ecological functions of crop residues under conservation agriculture. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *37*, 26.
103. Repullo-Ruibérriz de Torres, M. A., Carbonell, B. R. M., Moreno, G. M., Ordóñez, F. R., & Rodríguez, L. A. (2021). Soil organic matter and nutrient improvement through cover crops in a Mediterranean olive orchard. Soil and Tillage Research, *210*, 104977.
104. Rochette, P. (2008). No-till only increases N₂O emissions in poorly-aerated soils. Soil and Tillage Research, *101*, 97-100.
105. Rodenburg, J., Büchi, L., & Haggar, J. (2020). Adoption by adaptation: Moving from Conservation Agriculture to conservation practices. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, *19*, 437-455.
106. Roldán, A., Caravaca, F., Hernández, M. T., García, C., Sánchez, B. C., Velásquez, M., & Tiscareno, M. (2003). No-tillage, crop residue additions and legume cover cropping effects on soil quality characteristics under maize in Patzcuaro watershed (Mexico). Soil and Tillage Research, *72*, 65-73.
107. Rusinamhodzi, L., Corbeels, M., van Wijk, M. T., Rufino, M. C., Nyamangara, J., & Giller, K. E. (2011). A meta-analysis of long-term effects of conservation agriculture on maize grain yield under rain-fed conditions. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *31*, 657.
108. Sá, J. C. D., Cerri, C. C., Lal, R., Dick, W. A., Piccolo, M. D., & Feigl, B. E. (2009). Soil organic carbon and fertility interactions affected by a tillage chronosequence in a Brazilian Oxisol. Soil and Tillage Research, *104*, 56-64.
109. Sharma, S., Vashisht, M., Singh, Y., & Thind, H. S. (2019). Soil carbon pools and enzyme activities in aggregate size fractions after seven years of conservation agriculture in a rice–wheat system. Crop and Pasture Science, *70*, 473-485.
110. Shen, Y., McLaughlin, N., Zhang, X., Xu, M., & Liang, A. (2018). Effect of tillage and crop residue on soil temperature following planting for a Black soil in Northeast China. Scientific Reports, *8*, 4500.
111. Sinha, A. K., Ghosh, A., Dhar, T., Bhattacharya, P. M., Mitra, B., Rakesh, S., et al. (2019). Trends in key soil parameters under conservation agriculture-based sustainable intensification farming practices in the Eastern Ganga Alluvial Plains. Soil Research, *57*, 883-893.
112. Sinsabaugh, R. L., Lauber, C. L., Weintraub, M. N., Ahmed, B., Allison, S. D., Crenshaw, C., et al. (2008). Stoichiometry of soil enzyme activity at global scale. Ecology Letters, *11*, 1252-1264.
113. Sithole, N. J., & Magwaza, L. S. (2019). Long-term changes of soil chemical characteristics and maize yield in no-till conservation agriculture in a semi-arid environment of South Africa. Soil and Tillage Research, *194*, 104317.
114. Six, J., Elliott, E. T., & Paustian, K. (2000). Soil macroaggregate turnover and microaggregate formation: A mechanism for C sequestration under no-tillage agriculture. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *32*, 2099-2103.
115. Six, J., Ogle, S. M., Breidt, F. J., Conant, R. T., Mosier, A. R., & Paustian, K. (2004). The potential to mitigate global warming with no-tillage management is only realized when practised in the long term. Global Change Biology, *10*, 155-160.
116. Soane, B. D., Ball, B. C., Arvidsson, J., Basch, G., Moreno, F., & Roger-Estrade, J. (2012). No-till in northern, western and south-western Europe: A review of problems and opportunities for crop production and the environment. Soil and Tillage Research, *118*, 66-87.
117. Somasundaram, J., Salikram, M., Sinha, N. K., Mohanty, M., Chaudhary, R. S., Dalal, R. C., et al. (2019). Conservation agriculture effects on soil properties and crop productivity in a semiarid region of India. Soil Research, *57*, 187-199.
118. Spedding, T. A., Hamel, C., Mehuys, G. R., & Madramootoo, C. A. (2004). Soil microbial dynamics in maize-growing soil under different tillage and residue management systems. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *36*, 499-512.
119. Stagnari, F., Galieni, A., Speca, S., Cafiero, G., & Pisante, M. (2014). Effects of straw mulch on growth and yield of durum wheat during transition to conservation agriculture in Mediterranean environment. Field Crops Research, *167*, 51-63.
120. Steward, P. R., Dougill, A. J., Thierfelder, C., Pittelkow, C. M., Stringer, L. C., Kudzala, M., et al. (2018). The adaptive capacity of maize-based conservation agriculture systems to climate stress in tropical and subtropical environments: A meta-regression of yields. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *251*, 194-202.
121. Sun, L., Wang, S., Zhang, Y., Li, J., Wang, X., Wang, R., et al. (2018). Conservation agriculture based on crop rotation and tillage in the semi-arid Loess Plateau, China: Effects on crop yield and soil water use. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *251*, 67-77.
122. TerAvest, D., Carpenter-Boggs, L., Thierfelder, C., & Reganold, J. P. (2015). Crop production and soil water management in conservation agriculture, no-till, and conventional tillage systems in Malawi. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *212*, 285-296.
123. Thierfelder, C., Baudron, F., Setimela, P., Nyagumbo, I., Mupangwa, W., Mhlanga, B., et al. (2018). Complementary practices supporting conservation agriculture in southern Africa. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *38*, 16.
124. Thierfelder, C., & Wall, P. C. (2010). Rotation in conservation agriculture systems of Zambia: Effects on soil quality and water relations. Experimental Agriculture, *46*, 309-325.
125. Thomas, G. A., Dalal, R. C., & Standley, J. (2007). No-till effects on organic matter, pH, cation exchange capacity and nutrient distribution in a Luvisol in the semi-arid subtropics. Soil and Tillage Research, *94*, 295-304.
126. Thompson, J. P. (1992). Soil biotic and biochemical factors in a long-term tillage and stubble management experiment on a vertisol. 2. Nitrogen deficiency with zero tillage and stubble retention. Soil and Tillage Research, *22*, 339-361.
127. Usón, A., & Poch, R. M. (2000). Effects of tillage and management practices on soil crust morphology under a Mediterranean environment. Soil and Tillage Research, *54*, 191-196.
128. van Bruggen, A. H. C., Semenov, A. M., van Diepeningen, A. D., de Vos, O. J., & Blok, W. J. (2006). Relation between soil health, wave-like fluctuations in microbial populations, and soil-borne plant disease management. European Journal of Plant Pathology, *115*, 105-122.
129. VandenBygaart, A. J., & Angers, D. A. (2006). Towards accurate measurements of soil organic carbon stock change in agroecosystems. Canadian Journal of Soil Science, *86*, 465-471.
130. Vanlauwe, B., Wendt, J., Giller, K. E., Corbeels, M., Gerard, B., & Nolte, C. (2014). A fourth principle is required to define Conservation Agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa: The appropriate use of fertilizer to enhance crop productivity. Field Crops Research, *155*, 10-13.
131. Vastola, A., Zdruli, P., D'Amico, M., Pappalardo, G., Viccaro, M., Di Napoli, F., et al. (2017). A comparative multidimensional evaluation of conservation agriculture systems: A case study from a Mediterranean area of Southern Italy. Land Use Policy, *68*, 326-333.
132. Vieira, F. C. B., Bayer, C., Zanatta, J., & Ernani, P. R. (2009). Organic matter kept Al toxicity low in a subtropical no-tillage soil under long-term (21-year) legume-based crop systems and N fertilisation. Australian Journal of Soil Research, *47*, 707-714.
133. Virto, I., Barré, P., Burlot, A., & Chenu, C. (2012). Carbon input differences as the main factor explaining the variability in soil organic C storage in no-tilled compared to inversion tilled agrosystems. Biogeochemistry, *108*, 17-26.
134. Wang, Y., Xu, J., Shen, J. H., Luo, Y. M., Scheu, S., & Ke, X. (2010). Tillage, residue burning and crop rotation alter soil fungal community and water-stable aggregation in arable fields. Soil and Tillage Research, *107*, 71-79.
135. Wang, Z., Liu, L., Chen, Q., & Liao, Y. (2016). Conservation tillage increases soil bacterial diversity in the dryland of northern China. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, *36*, 28.
136. Williams, A., Jordan, N. R., Smith, R. G., Hunter, M. C., Kammerer, M., Kane, D. A., et al. (2018). A regionally-adapted implementation of conservation agriculture delivers rapid improvements to soil properties associated with crop yield stability. Scientific Reports, *8*, 8467.
137. Wortmann, C. S., Drijber, R. A., & Franti, T. G. (2010). One-time tillage of no-till crop land five years post-tillage. Agronomy Journal, *102*, 1302-1307.
138. Wyland, L. J., Jackson, L. E., Chaney, W. E., Klonsky, K., Koike, S. T., & Kimple, B. (1996). Winter cover crops in a vegetable cropping system: Impacts on nitrate leaching, soil water, crop yield, pests and management costs. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, *59*, 1-17.
139. Ye, R., Parajuli, B., Szogi, A. A., Sigua, G. C., & Ducey, T. F. (2021). Soil health assessment after 40 years of conservation and conventional tillage management in Southeastern Coastal Plain soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal, *85*, 1214-1225.
140. Zhang, B., He, H., Ding, X., Zhang, X., Zhang, X., Yang, X., et al. (2012). Soil microbial community dynamics over a maize (Zea mays L.) growing season under conventional- and no-tillage practices in a rainfed agroecosystem. Soil and Tillage Research, *124*, 153-160.
141. Zhang, H., Niu, L., Hu, K., Hao, J., Li, F., Gao, Z., & Wang, X. (2020). Influence of tillage, straw-returning and mineral fertilization on the stability and associated organic content of soil aggregates in the North China Plain. Agronomy, *10*, 951.
142. Zhao, X., Liu, B. Y., Liu, S. L., Qi, J. Y., Wang, X., Pu, C., et al. (2020). Sustaining crop production in China's cropland by crop residue retention: A meta-analysis. Land Degradation & Development, *31*, 694-709.

Abstract

Soil enzymes mediate the breakdown of organic matter and the release of carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus, and their activity is widely used as an early indicator of changes in soil quality. Interpreting that activity, however, requires an understanding of both the kinetics of the enzymes themselves and the environmental and management conditions under which they operate. This narrative review draws together recent studies and reviews on three linked themes: the kinetic description of enzyme-catalyzed reactions and the way pH, temperature and inhibitors modify it; the temperature sensitivity of soil enzymes and its consequences for nutrient stoichiometry; and the response of enzyme activities to tillage, residue retention and climate-smart cropping systems, including the role of dehydrogenase as an indicator of microbial function. The evidence shows that kinetic parameters measured in soil are apparent rather than intrinsic, that temperature sensitivity differs strongly among enzyme groups and can fall below the commonly assumed Q10 of 2, and that reduced tillage and residue retention generally raise soil organic carbon, microbial biomass and the activity of many hydrolytic enzymes, although not all enzymes respond and the relationships between enzymes and environmental factors change with management. Most field studies report potential activity from a single site and season and do not measure kinetic parameters, which limits mechanistic interpretation. Studies that combine kinetic parameters, temperature responses and management treatments across seasons are needed.

Keywords: soil enzymes, enzyme kinetics, Michaelis–Menten, temperature sensitivity, tillage, conservation agriculture, dehydrogenase, soil quality

References

1. Ahenkorah, I., Rahman, M. M., Karim, M. R., Beecham, S., & Saint, C. (2021). A review of enzyme induced carbonate precipitation (EICP): The role of enzyme kinetics. Sustainable Chemistry, *2*, 92-114. https://doi.org/10.3390/suschem2010007
2. Allen, A. P., & Gillooly, J. F. (2009). Towards an integration of ecological stoichiometry and the metabolic theory of ecology to better understand nutrient cycling. Ecology Letters, *12*, 369-384.
3. Bárta, J., Šlajsová, P., Tahovská, K., Picek, T., & Šantrůčková, H. (2013). Different temperature sensitivity and kinetics of soil enzymes indicate seasonal shifts in C, N and P nutrient stoichiometry in acid forest soil. Biogeochemistry. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-013-9898-1
4. Casida, L. E., Jr., Klein, D. A., & Santoro, T. (1964). Soil dehydrogenase activity. Soil Science, *98*, 371-376.
5. Choudhary, M., Jat, H. S., Datta, A., Yadav, A. K., Sapkota, T. B., Mondal, S., et al. (2018). Sustainable intensification influences soil quality, biota, and productivity in cereal-based agroecosystems. Applied Soil Ecology, *126*, 189-198.
6. Chróst, R. G. (1990). Microbial ectoenzymes in aquatic environments. In J. Overbeck & R. J. Chróst (Eds.), Aquatic microbial ecology: Biochemical and molecular approaches (pp. 47-78). Springer.
7. Davidson, E. A., & Janssens, I. A. (2006). Temperature sensitivity of soil carbon decomposition and feedbacks to climate change. Nature, *440*, 165-173.
8. Dick, W. A. (1994). Influence of long-term tillage and crop rotation combinations on soil enzyme activities. Soil Science Society of America Journal, *56*, 783-788.
9. Fidaleo, M., & Lavecchia, R. (2003). Kinetic study of enzymatic urea hydrolysis in the pH range 4–9. Chemical and Biochemical Engineering Quarterly, *17*, 311-318.
10. Gillooly, J. F., Brown, J. H., West, G. B., Savage, V. M., & Charnov, E. L. (2001). Effects of size and temperature on metabolic rate. Science, *293*, 2248-2251.
11. Hinojosa, M. B., García-Ruiz, R., Viñegla, B., & Carreira, J. A. (2004). Microbiological rates and enzyme activities as indicators of functionality in soils affected by the Aznalcóllar toxic spill. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *36*, 1637-1644.
12. Jat, H. S., Datta, A., Choudhary, M., Sharma, P. C., Dixit, B., & Jat, M. L. (2021). Soil enzymes activity: Effect of climate smart agriculture on rhizosphere and bulk soil under cereal based systems of north-west India. European Journal of Soil Biology, *103*, 103292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2021.103292
13. Krajewska, B. (2009). Ureases I. Functional, catalytic and kinetic properties: A review. Journal of Molecular Catalysis B: Enzymatic, *59*, 9-21.
14. Kumar, S., Chaudhuri, S., & Maiti, S. K. (2013). Soil dehydrogenase enzyme activity in natural and mine soil – A review. Middle East Journal of Scientific Research, *13*, 898-906. https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2013.13.7.2801
15. Kuzyakov, Y. (2002). Review: Factors affecting rhizosphere priming effects. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, *165*, 382-396.
16. Marx, M. C., Wood, M., & Jarvis, S. C. (2001). A microplate fluorimetric assay for the study of enzyme diversity in soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *33*, 1633-1640.
17. Michaelis, L., & Menten, M. L. (1913). Die Kinetik der Invertinwirkung. Biochemische Zeitschrift, *49*, 333-369.
18. Page, K. L., Dang, Y. P., & Dalal, R. C. (2020). The ability of conservation agriculture to conserve soil organic carbon and the subsequent impact on soil physical, chemical, and biological properties and yield. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems, *4*, 31. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsufs.2020.00031
19. Pandey, D., Agrawal, M., & Bohra, J. S. (2015). Assessment of soil quality under different tillage practices during wheat cultivation: Soil enzymes and microbial biomass. Chemistry and Ecology, *31*, 510-523. https://doi.org/10.1080/02757540.2015.1029462
20. Pausch, J., & Kuzyakov, Y. (2018). Carbon input by roots into the soil: Quantification of rhizodeposition from root to ecosystem scale. Global Change Biology, *24*, 1-12.
21. Puglisi, E., Del Re, A. A. M., Rao, M. A., & Gianfreda, L. (2006). Development and validation of numerical indexes integrating enzyme activities of soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *38*, 1673-1681.
22. Sinsabaugh, R. L. (2010). Phenol oxidase, peroxidase and organic matter dynamics of soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *42*, 391-404.
23. Sinsabaugh, R. L., Hill, B. H., & Follstad Shah, J. J. (2009). Ecoenzymatic stoichiometry of microbial organic nutrient acquisition in soil and sediment. Nature, *462*, 795-799.
24. Stayton, M. M., & Fromm, H. J. (1979). A computer analysis of the validity of the integrated Michaelis–Menten equation. Journal of Theoretical Biology, *78*, 309-323.
25. Steinweg, J. M., Jagadamma, S., Frerichs, J., & Mayes, M. A. (2013). Activation energy of extracellular enzymes in soils from different biomes. PLoS ONE, *8*, e59943.
26. Trasar-Cepeda, C., Gil-Sotres, F., & Leirós, M. C. (2007). Thermodynamic parameters of enzymes in grassland soils from Galicia, NW Spain. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *39*, 311-319.
27. Trevors, J. T. (1984). Dehydrogenase activity in soil: A comparison between the INT and TTC assay. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, *16*, 673-674.
28. Von Mersi, W., & Schinner, F. (1991). An improved and accurate method for determining the dehydrogenase activity of soils with iodonitrotetrazolium chloride. Biology and Fertility of Soils, *11*, 216-220.
29. Wallenstein, M., Allison, S. D., Ernakovich, J., Steinweg, J. M., & Sinsabaugh, R. (2011). Controls on the temperature sensitivity of soil enzymes: A key driver of in situ enzyme activity rates. In G. Shukla & A. Varma (Eds.), Soil enzymology (pp. 245-258). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-14225-3_13
30. Wallenstein, M. D., McMahon, S. K., & Schimel, J. P. (2009). Seasonal variation in enzyme activities and temperature sensitivities in Arctic tundra soils. Global Change Biology, *15*, 1631-1639.