Agriculture Journal: Volume-11, Issue-11, November, 2025

Abstract- Food, as a fundamental necessity for human survival, represents not only a basic right but also a critical responsibility of the state. This responsibility becomes even more significant in developing and poverty-stricken nations, where the state's dual obligation lies in supporting both the producers—primarily farmers—and the consumers, who often face food insecurity. Moreover, agriculture plays a pivotal role in shaping a country’s overall economic health, influencing employment, income distribution, and trade balance. Agricultural policy, therefore, becomes a key instrument through which the state can drive inclusive growth and ensure food security. However, this paper seeks to analyze how private corporate interests, in collaboration with state mechanisms and influenced by global powers, are reshaping agricultural policy to serve market-oriented objectives. This reorientation often sidelines ethical and moral considerations of food justice, sustainability, and equity, ultimately compromising the broader economic and social goals of food security.
Keywords— Agriculture, Food security, MSP, PDS, food politics.

Abstract- A field experiment was conducted at the experimental field of Soil Science Division, Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI), Joydebpur, Gazipur-1701during winter season of 2022 – 2023. BARI Surjamukhi-3, a popular and promising dwarf variety of sunflower was used in this study as a test crop. The objectives were to know the effect of foliar spray of boron (B) on seed formation, seed yield and oil content in sunflower and to find out the optimum foliar dose of B for maximizing the seed yield. The experiment was conducted in a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) having three replications. The fertilizer boric acid (H3BO3) containing 17% Boron (B) was applied at 20-25 and 40-45 days after sowing (DAS) as foliar mode. Five treatments comprised of different foliar doses of B were applied. T1- control (spray with distilled water), T2- 50 mg L-1 B, T3- 100 mg L-1 B, T4- 150 mg L-1 B and T5-200 mg L-1 B. The foliar application of B significantly increased the seed formation, seed yield and yield contributing characters of sunflower. The treatment T4 (150 mg L-1B) produced the highest seed yield (2.25 t/ha) that was equal with the treatment T5 (200 mg L-1B). The minimum unfilled seed (19.00%) was recorded in T4 (150 mg L-1B), which was identical with the next higher dose T5 (19.00%) treatment. Foliar application of B also significantly increased the oil content in sunflower seeds. The maximum oil content (39.99%) was recorded in T5 (200 mg L-1B), which was significantly higher over B control but identical to rest of the treatments. Thus, sunflower grown in B deficient Grey Terrace Soil of Gazipur (AEZ-28) found responsive to foliar application of B with regard to seed formation, seed yield and oil content.
Keywords— Foliar application, Optimum dose of Boron, Seed sterility, Oil content, Reproductive growth.

Abstract- The performance of Bali cattle has been declining. To preserve their genetic quality and productivity, appropriate measures must be taken, such as revitalizing Bali cattle by breeding them with Banteng semen. This study aimed to evaluate the performance of offspring resulting from artificial insemination using frozen Banteng semen in Bali cattle. Ten Bali cows underwent synchronization twice using the PGF2α protocol. The cows were then monitored for signs of estrus 24 hours after the second injection, and breeding occurred 8-12 hours after confirming heat. Artificial insemination was performed with frozen Banteng semen from Taman Safari, Bogor, Indonesia. Insemination was conducted three times during estrus until ovulation was achieved. Pregnancy was diagnosed 20 days post-insemination. The dam's weight was recorded at the time of artificial insemination, and the calf's weight was tracked at birth and then weekly for 10 weeks using a specialized livestock scale. The birth weights recorded were 18.33±2.42 kg for female calves and 20.25±2.71 kg for male calves, with no significant difference in birth weights between the sexes (P>0.05). This study found that the average daily weight gain was 0.29 kg for female calves and 0.37 kg for male calves, indicating no significant growth difference between the sexes and higher than average for Bali calves born with Bali bull semen. The study concluded that Bali calves born through artificial insemination with frozen Banteng semen exhibited greater birth weight and body weight growth than average Bali calves.
Keywords— Bali cattle, Banteng, frozen semen, artificial insemination.

Abstract- The laboratory experiment was conducted during 2024 to study the different biological parameters of Trichogramma chilonis and Trichogramma japonicum on the factitious hosts Corcyra cephalonica and Cadra cautella. The present study revealed that 94.44 to 96.67 percent egg parasitization was recorded on C. cephalonica, which was found to be statistically at par with C. cautella eggs (93.33 to 96.67%). In the case of T.chilonis, percent parasitization ranged from 90.00 to 93.33% on both C. cephalonica and C. cautella eggs.
A shorter development period of T. chilonis was observed (7.67 days) when reared on the eggs of C. cautella, which was found at par with the eggs of C. cephalonica (8.00 days). In the case of T. japonicum, the development period ranged from 8.33 to 8.67 days when reared on both factitious hosts. Adult longevity was higher when T. chilonis and T. japonicum were reared on C. cautella eggs compared to C. cephalonica eggs.
Fecundity was not affected by the number of eggs or host species, as results were statistically at par. In the case of T. chilonis and T. japonicum, maximum female parasitoid recovery was noticed from the parasitized eggs of C. cautella, which was at par with C. cephalonica. The number of host eggs showed significant differences in percent adult emergence of both parasitoids. The highest percent adult emergence of T. chilonis and T. japonicum was reported when one gravid female parasitoid was exposed to 10 eggs/card, and the results were significantly different from the other two treatments (20 eggs/card and 30 eggs/card).
Keywords— C. cephalonica, C. cautella, T. chilonis, T. japonicum.

Abstract- This article presents the role of Ecosystem–based Adaptation (EbA) approach to restore degraded forests, savannahs and wetlands and highlights priority options and select urgent and immediate EbA activities regarding adaptation planning processes addressing ecosystems to solve the problems associated with climate change, where this approach will use biodiversity and ecosystem services as part of an overall adaptation strategy to help people and communities adapt to the negative effects of climate change at local level through wetlands, savannahs and forests restoration.
In general, the EbA approach will constitutes a decisive step in its search to respond to immediate and urgent needs for adaptation to negative effects of climate change in Kayonza District.
Keywords— Ecosystem-Based Adaptation, EbA, climate change adaptation, community resilience, degraded forests, savannah restoration, wetland restoration, Kayonza District, Rwanda, biodiversity, ecosystem services.

Abstract- Onion cultivation plays a vital role in the agricultural landscape of North-West Bangladesh, though Bangladesh experiences a great gap between national production and consumption. The main aim of the study is to show the socio-demographic status of onion producers in North-West Bangladesh (Pabna) along with key correlates of onion production. In order to gather primary data from a sample of 100 onion farmers who were randomly selected from four unions in the study area, a face-to-face interview method was used. Descriptive statistics was used to show the socio-demographic status and Spearman's rank-order correlation (Spearman's rho) was used to measure the strength and direction of the relationships between pairs of variables: (i) total seed cost and output in kg, (ii) Age of farmers and involvement years in Onion production, and (iii) output in kg and after harvesting cost. Most of the farmers were found experienced which also indicates a statistically significant strongly positive relationship between age and involved years of farmers (ρ = .685, p<0.01), though maximum farmers were found as having lower formal education with lower annual income. A statistically significant relationship was also fund between total seed cost and output though the relationship is weak (ρ = .208, p<0.05), underscoring that there are other factors also which can affect production. A significant moderate positive relationship was found between output and after harvesting cost (ρ = .508, p<0.01) which indicates that the more production, the more economic burden on the farmers. Despite facing various problems, 90% farmers wanted to continue production in future.
Keywords— Onion production; Agriculture in Bangladesh; Statistical Analysis; Smallholder farmers; Supply chain in Agriculture.

Abstract- This paper synthesizes a comprehensive review examining two decades of agricultural policy formulation, implementation, and performance in post-conflict Liberia (2004-2024). Following extensive civil conflict (1989-2003), Liberia's agricultural sector employing approximately 70% of the population and contributing nearly 40% to GDP faced unprecedented reconstruction challenges. The analysis reveals significant policy-performance gaps, characterized by ambitious frameworks undermined by weak implementation capacity, inadequate funding, poor infrastructure, and governance challenges. While progress has been achieved in policy formulation and institutional rebuilding, agricultural productivity remains low, food insecurity persists at 41%, and rural poverty continues to affect 54% of agricultural households. This synthesis contributes to the discourse on post-conflict agricultural development by identifying critical success factors and persistent constraints in fragile state contexts.
Keywords— Agricultural policy, post-conflict reconstruction, food security, smallholder farmers, Liberia, policy implementation, institutional capacity.

Abstract- The study focused on evaluating the efficiency of the microbial concoction on reducing the odor distance (m), fly density (per m2), and the number of dead eggs and larval stage of flies in the pit. The result implies that on the day of application the fly population was 391 specks per square meter and decreased to 273 specks on the second day of application. Consequently, the dead egg and larval stage of flies has sudden increase on the second day of application from approx. 335 on the day of application to approx. 349 but decreases on the following days up to zero visibility on the pit. On the other hand, it was shown that there is a decreasing distance point on smelling the odor of the manure until the last application of the concoction. On the day of the first application the odor was smelled 7.7 meters and reduce to 4 meters on the last day of application. The distance was decreased but it has still the same odor until the finished of the experiment. Minimal dead earthworms were also visible on the first three days of the experiment. White spots were also seen from the second day of application until the 5th day of experimentation. The incorporation of odor erasing microbial concoction on the pits of the quail had positively shown its efficiency on the reduction of the fly population and eggs and larval stage. Hence, reduced the distance of smelling the odor.
Considering its positive result, the manure pits should be place on covered for better experimentation or should be applied immediately on the litter beds for more conclusive results.
Keywords— ammonia, fly ash, manure, OEMC, quail.

Abstract- A feeding trial was carried out to evaluate the effects of replacing the fishmeal with a dietary fermented earthworm meal silage (FEMS). A 240 ready-to-lay (RTL) quail of 22 days old were used to determine average daily gain (ADG), feed conversion ratio (FCR), average daily feed intake (ADFI), % hen-egg day production (HEDP), average egg weight (AWE), Total Weekly Egg Produced (TWEP), and income over feed cost (IOFC) of quail fed with dietary fermented earthworm meal silage (FEMS). The dietary FEMS was used to replace fish meal in a feed formula at the rate of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%. Twenty experimental RTL quails were distributed to a colony panel which served as a replicate in a 4-treatment x 3-replicate randomized complete block experimental design.
The result showed no significant (p>0.05) effect in replacing the fishmeal with a fermented earthworm meal silage (FEMS) in a feed formula. Hence, the feed formula with a 5% FEMS resulted in a heavier average daily gain among the different treatments. The % HEDP resulted in a higher egg production in 15% FEMS substitution, while, IOFC was highest at 10% FEMS substitution. These findings indicate that formulating quail feeds in an attempt to replace fish meal with a dietary FEMS has no detrimental effect on growth and laying performance and has the potential to be included as an animal protein dietary ingredient in the quail diet.
Keywords— Dietary Fermented Earthworm Meal Silage, Flock Uniformity, Ready to Lay, Growth and Laying Response, Quail.

Abstract- The Ramganga River, a significant tributary of the Ganges, faces escalating degradation due to untreated sewage, industrial effluents, and unregulated anthropogenic activity in western Uttar Pradesh. This study presents an integrated evaluation of two field-based interventions conducted by the College of Agricultural Sciences, Teerthanker Mahaveer University (TMU), Moradabad - a community survey on pollution and socio-economic practices (January 2025) and a cleanup and awareness drive (September 2025) under the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG). Employing participatory observation, stakeholder interviews, and environmental assessment, the study explores the role of academic institutions in catalyzing behavioral and ecological transformation. Findings reveal that localized engagement initiatives significantly improved environmental awareness and riverbank sanitation, with 15+ bags of solid waste collected and disposed of safely during the clean-up. Field observations highlighted major environmental stressors - untreated wastewater discharge, sand mining, agricultural runoff, and inadequate waste management infrastructure. Community interactions revealed socio-economic dependence on the river coupled with limited awareness of sustainable practices. These outcomes align with national policy goals emphasizing community-led governance, environmental education, and decentralized restoration mechanisms. The paper concludes that structured academic involvement, combined with continuous awareness campaigns and ecological monitoring, provides a replicable model for river rejuvenation. Recommendations include establishing decentralized treatment systems, strengthening waste segregation infrastructure, and scaling university-community partnerships across the Ganga basin.
Keywords— Ramganga River; Ganga Rejuvenation; Community Participation; Waste Management; Environmental Awareness; River Restoration; Sustainable Development; Moradabad; NMCG.

Abstract- This study aimed to determine the efficacy of a 14-day rapid odor erasing microbial composting powder (OEMCP) on quality of the quail manure based compost as assessed pH, temperature, harvest recovery and germination index of pechay (Brassica rapa). The treatments were namely; T1-control (50 kg Quail Manure (QM) + 50 kg Fly Ash); T2 (50 kg QM + 50 kg Fly Ash + 350g OECMP); T3 (50 kg QM + 50 kg Fly Ash + 400g OECMP) and T4 (50 kg QM + 50 kg Fly Ash + 450g OECMP). The pH value was substantially reduced (p<0.01) in T3 and T4 compared to the T1, providing ideal environment for composting. Temperature significantly increased (p <0.01) in T2 and T3 compared to TI indicating more active fermentation activity. The highest harvest recovery was achieved in T2 of 51.67 against only 43.00 % in T1. Finally, T2 had a significantly higher germination index (p<0.01) of 71.33% compared to TI of only 29.33% demonstrating an improved nutrient packed composition of the compost. Therefore, the above findings demonstrated that the OEMCP was an effective composting additive for quail manure as confirmed by improved compost quality and increased germination index of pechay.
Keywords— Environmental Challenges, Quail Manure, Composting, Organic Fertilizer.

Abstract- The economy and employment in India are significantly impacted by agriculture, with Wheat (Triticum aestivum) serving as a crucial staple crop. However, Sitophilus granarius infestations result in yearly significant agricultural losses. This study compares natural insect prevention techniques employing Azadirachta indica, Piper nigrum, Syzygium aromaticum, and Laurus nobilis and the efficacy of boric acid, a common pesticide, against the Triticum aestivum pest. The experimental design examined 50g of Triticum aestivum, 10 Sitophilus granarius, and different amounts of boric acid (1g, 2g, and 5g) during 24 hours, 48 hours, and 72 hours. The LD50 value of boric acid was observed to be best at 5g in 48 hours. Similarly, for the natural method, the LD50 value was best observed in Laurus nobilis in 48 hours. By this, we can state that Boric acid (Chemical method) remains more effective than the natural method, as it has immediate results. Natural methods can be considered as an alternative to an environmentally friendly approach.
Keywords— Azadirachta indica (Neem), Boric acid, Piper nigrum (Black pepper), Laurus nobilis (Bay leaf), Sitophilus granarius, Syzygium aromaticum (Cloves), Triticum aestivum (Wheat).

Abstract- A field experiment was conducted at the Agricultural College Farm, Naira, during the rabi season of 2024–2025 to evaluate weed dynamics in maize-based intercropping systems under different nitrogen levels. The soil was sandy loam with low fertility status. The study followed a split-plot design with five main plots—maize intercropped with blackgram, greengram, cowpea, in-situ green manuringand sole maizeand three subplots involving 100% RDN, 75% RDN,and 75% RDN + biological fertilizer consortia. Results revealed that maize + cowpea in paired rows significantly reduced weed density and weed dry weight at all crop growth stages. This was attributed to the rapid canopy coverage and shading effect of cowpea, which suppressed weed germination. Sole maize recorded the highest weed density and dry weight, indicating poor weed suppression. Among nitrogen levels, 75% RDN produced the lowest weed density and dry weight, while 100% RDN recorded higher weed growth due to greater nutrient availability. The findings suggest that adopting maize + cowpea intercropping with 75% RDN can effectively reduce weed competition and improve resource efficiency.
Keywords— Cropping system, intercropping, in-situ green manuring, nutrient uptake and nutrient levels.

Abstract- Brown spot disease, caused by the fungus Bipolaris oryzae, poses a significant threat to rice production. This study assessed the severity and distribution of the disease in the paddy fields of the Prayagraj district, Uttar Pradesh, India, over two consecutive Kharif seasons (September 2011 and September 2012). A survey was conducted across eight tehsils (Karchhana, Soraon, Handia, Phulpur, Bara, Meja, Sadar, and Koraon), with five villages randomly selected from each. Disease severity was quantified using the Percent Disease Incidence (PDI) method. The pooled mean PDI across the tehsils ranged from a low of 25.08% in Phulpur to a high of 47.24% in Meja. High disease incidence was also noted in Soraon (45.57%). The village-level data revealed the highest pooled PDI of 50.0% in Dihi Khurd (Meja) on the PB-1509 variety. The disease was prevalent during both the Post tillering and Panicle initiation stages. The consistent and high incidence of brown spot disease in tehsils like Meja and Soraon confirms its endemic status in the region and underscores the urgent need for targeted integrated disease management strategies, including the development and deployment of resistant rice varieties.
Keywords— Rice, Bipolaris oryzae, Prayagraj, Percent Disease Incidence (PDI), PB-1509 and PB 1121.

Abstract- The increasing global population, the impacts of climate change, and the rising energy costs are making it increasingly difficult to ensure sustainability in agricultural production systems. In particular, the greenhouse sector, despite offering significant advantages for year-round production, constitutes an energy-intensive production model due to its high heating requirements. The current heating systems based on fossil fuels lead to both increased production costs and higher carbon emissions. In this context, ensuring energy management in greenhouses through renewable sources has become a strategic necessity in terms of economic efficiency and environmental sustainability. The main objective of this study is to examine the potential use of geothermal energy resources in agricultural structures, particularly in smart greenhouse systems, from engineering, environmental, and economic perspectives. Within the scope of this study, the design principles of geothermal heating systems, their energy efficiency potential, heat transfer mechanisms, and integration processes with smart control systems (IoT sensors, automation, and artificial intelligence algorithms) were evaluated. In addition, comparative analyses were conducted based on Turkey’s geothermal resource potential, application examples, and energy economy indicators. The significance of this study lies in the fact that renewable energy-based smart greenhouse applications enhance energy security in agricultural production, reduce carbon emissions, and ensure production continuity. The utilization of geothermal energy as a constant, domestic, and low-emission resource in the agricultural sector directly aligns with the goals of sustainable production. The literature review indicates that studies focusing on the integration of geothermal heating technologies with smart control infrastructures, particularly within the context of Turkey, remain limited. Existing research largely remains confined to energy analysis, while comprehensive engineering approaches that simultaneously address digital automation, system modeling, environmental impact, and policy interaction have not been sufficiently developed. This study aims to fill this gap by presenting a multidisciplinary assessment framework for the integration of geothermal energy and smart greenhouse technologies. In this review, studies published in international scientific databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, ProQuest, ResearchGate, MDPI, IEEE, and Google Scholar were examined to comprehensively analyze the integration of geothermal heating technologies into agricultural structures and their adaptation processes within the context of smart greenhouse systems.
Keywords— Geothermal Energy, Smart Greenhouse, Energy Efficiency, Internet of Things (IoT), Sustainability, Carbon Emission.

Abstract- Carbon sequestration plays a crucial role in addressing climate change by lowering the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) in the atmosphere. With the rapid increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, the Earth’s climate is undergoing significant transformations, making it essential to adopt strategies that counteract these emissions. Among various solutions, soil carbon sequestration stands out as an effective method, particularly because degraded and agricultural soils hold substantial capacity for storing additional carbon. Globally, soils are capable of storing nearly twice as much carbon as the atmosphere and terrestrial vegetation combined. The amount of carbon held in soil is influenced by both climatic conditions and soil characteristics. Agricultural practices—including land-use changes, crop residue handling and soil management—play a major role in determining soil carbon levels. Improving these practices not only enhances soil carbon stocks but also supports food security and promotes sustainable farming systems. The development of carbon sequestration technologies is increasingly important. Abiotic approaches such as CO₂ injection into oceans, geological formations, and mineral carbonation offer long-term storage solutions, while biotic approaches rely on natural processes and tend to be more affordable and faster to implement. Together, these methods complement each other and contribute to reducing the risks associated with climate change. Human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels, have significantly increased atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, resulting in global warming and a range of environmental challenges. Therefore, it is essential to adopt strategies that both limit emissions and actively remove CO₂ from the atmosphere. This chapter provides an in-depth examination of carbon sequestration—its definition, processes, benefits, and challenges—along with its importance in mitigating climate change and enhancing our understanding of its overall potential.
Keywords— Carbon sequestration, climate change mitigation, greenhouse gas emissions, soil carbon sequestration, geological sequestration, terrestrial sequestration, and oceanic sequestration.

Abstract- The aimed of the investigation was to evaluate the impact of various organic and inorganic treatments on the growth and yield of broccoli. The experiment utilized a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with three replications. Five treatment setups were employed: T1 = Control (Recommended doses of fertilizers: Urea: 250; TSP: 150; MoP: 200; and Boric acid: 12 kg/ha); T2 = Vermicompost (5 t/ha) + ¼ RDF; T3 = Vermicompost (3 t/ha) + ¼ RDF; T4 = Trichocompost (5 t/ha) + ¼ RDF; T5 = Trichocompost (3 t/ha) + ¼ RDF. The results revealed significant differences across treatments. Vermicompost (T2) consistently produced the highest values. For all 30, 45 and 60 DAT, T2 had the tallest plant height (48.18, 63.80 and 64.00 cm), the most leaves (12.60, 15.60 and 15.62), the largest stem diameter (2.14, 2.40 and 2.62 cm), the longest leaf length (43.32 and 52.98 cm), and the greatest leaf breadth (17.58, 21.26 and 22.38 cm). T2 achieved the highest yield (4.32 kg/plot; 21.33 t/ha), outperforming all other treatments, while T1 produced the lowest (3.20 kg/plot; 15.80 t/ha). TSS was recorded the highest in T2 (9.83°Brix), with high ascorbic acid content (88.32 mg/100 g), maximum protein (4.34%), iron content in T2 (1.44 mg/100 g) and calcium content (47.60 mg/100 g). These findings demonstrated the potential of T2: Vermicompost (5 t/ha) with 1/4 of the recommended doses of fertilizers (RDF) to be a recommendable fertilizer management practice to boost broccoli productivity and also demonstrate its significance in reducing production cost for farmers.
Keywords— Vermicompost, Trichocompost, Organic, Yield, Broccoli.

Abstract- Understanding of temporal patterns of tree flowering is essential for assessing the availability of floral resources to sustain the pollinator population throughout the year. The present study examined the flowering phenology of fifteen tree species used as forage of insect pollinators in coastal Odisha during 2024, documenting variations in early, middle, and late flowering phases. Two species such as Moringa oleifera and Santalum album exhibited biannual flowering, with Moringa oleifera flowering for the longest duration (22 weeks), followed by Santalum album (19 weeks). The overall order of flowering duration revealed that a few species substantially dominated the floral calendar, ensuring prolonged resource availability. Month-wise analysis indicated that February, March, and April supported the highest number of insect species (five species each) in their middle flowering phase, reflecting a spring peak in floral abundance. While most species showed middle-phase flowering for two consecutive months, Peltophorum ferrugineum extended to three months. Moringa oleifera and Santalum album again stood out for flowering twice annually and for more than three months in the middle phase, offering extended forage for pollinators. The floral calendar demonstrated distinct species-specific phenological patterns, with eight tree species flowering mainly in spring during February to March and fewer tree species (three each month) flowering during July to December. January, May, and June recorded moderate flowering activity with five, six, and five tree species respectively. The extended flowering periods of Moringa oleifera, Santalum album, Peltophorum ferrugineum, and Tectona grandis contributed significantly to year-round floral resource availability. These overlapping flowering periods, spanning two to four months for many species, play a crucial role in sustaining diverse insect pollinators.
Keywords— Floral Calendar, Insect Pollinators, Coastal Odisha, Tree Species, Biannual Flowering.

Abstract- The Western Ghats of India, recognized as one of the world’s most critical biodiversity hotspots, hosts an exceptional diversity of orchids, many of which are endemic and highly sensitive to environmental change. However, rapid habitat degradation, climate instability, and the erosion of microhabitat complexity have placed these native orchids at increasing risk of decline. This 3.5-year interdisciplinary study examines species diversity, ecological requirements, mycorrhizal specificity, and habitat-based cultivation and restoration strategies for wild orchids across various forest ecosystems in Wayanad, Kerala.
Through systematic field surveys, phenological observations, microclimate monitoring, and topographic assessments, the research documented 54 native orchid species across diverse elevations and forest types. Six distinct microhabitat classes were identified as critical determinants of orchid success, characterized by variations in host tree bark texture, moss and litter depth, canopy cover, humidity gradients, slope orientation, and associated microbial communities.
Symbiotic seed germination and fungal isolation trials revealed strong and consistent mycorrhizal associations with Tulasnellaceae and Ceratobasidiaceae, highlighting their essential role in seedling development and early-stage survival. Controlled cultivation experiments conducted under semi-natural conditions demonstrated that microhabitat-sensitive propagation significantly improves growth performance. Artificial microhabitat reconstruction—incorporating bark roughness, moisture-retentive substrates, and stable humidity—achieved a 68% survival rate, outperforming conventional cultivation methods. Furthermore, semi-wild reintroduction trials recorded a 54% survival rate after one year, confirming the effectiveness of habitat-mimicking restoration protocols.
The findings underscore that successful orchid conservation in tropical forest landscapes requires a fine-scale understanding of microhabitat conditions, symbiotic fungal associations, and ecologically informed propagation techniques. This study provides a replicable, science-based restoration framework integrating cultivation research, field ecology, and community-based conservation. The methodologies and insights generated here offer valuable guidance for long-term orchid recovery efforts in the Western Ghats and other biodiversity-sensitive regions worldwide.
Keywords— Western Ghats; native orchids; microhabitat replication; mycorrhizal symbiosis; ecological restoration; reintroduction biology; conservation horticulture.