Agriculture Journal: Volume-11, Issue-9, September, 2025

Abstract- Agriculture is a critical sector for global food security and economic stability, yet it faces unprecedented challenges due to rapid population growth, urban expansion, and the adverse impacts of climate change. Precision agriculture, enabled by the integration of the Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), offers a promising solution by enabling continuous monitoring and data-driven decision-making for optimized resource utilization and improved crop yields. WSNs, composed of spatially distributed sensor nodes, facilitate real-time collection of environmental parameters such as soil moisture, temperature, humidity, and nutrient levels, which are transmitted wirelessly to centralized systems for analysis. This paper presents a comprehensive survey of IoT–WSN technologies applied in smart farming, with a focus on wireless communication protocols including RF, Bluetooth, Zigbee, LoRa, GSM, and Wi-Fi. Each protocol is evaluated in terms of range, data throughput, energy efficiency, scalability, and reliability, highlighting their strengths, limitations, and suitability for different agricultural contexts. Comparative analysis reveals that while short-range, low-power protocols like Bluetooth and Zigbee excel in energy efficiency, they are constrained by limited coverage; GSM provides wide-area connectivity but incurs higher operational costs; and Wi-Fi offers high throughput and scalability at the expense of greater power consumption. The review identifies key challenges such as energy constraints, environmental interference, network scalability, and cost barriers, and outlines future research directions for developing low-cost, energy-efficient, and resilient IoT–WSN architectures tailored for large-scale precision agriculture.
Keywords— IoT, WSN’s, Zigbee, LoRa, Bluetooth, GSM, Wi-Fi.

Abstract- The germination and growth of Cucumis sativus were studied by comparing the efficacy of selected organic (rabbit manure, goat manure, and fermented fruit tea) and inorganic Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium (NPK) 11-22-22 fertilizers at a rate of 40g applied in 2 intervals. Cucumis sativum was grown for 3 months under shade house conditions in grow bags using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with five treatments and four replications. Each block represented 40 plants with 8 plants per treatment. Although there was no statistical significance between the organic manures within the parameters tested, all organic manure was significantly different from the NPK in their effects. The fermented fruit tea treatment had the highest seedling growth rate as well as the highest germination percentage. The fruit tea also had the highest germination rate index after 5 days however the rabbit manure had the highest overall germination rate index as well as the highest number of plants flowering at the start of measurement. The NPK showed the lowest values overall. One-way analysis of variance was utilized for group comparison with significance noted at P<0.05 in germination rate and flowering. These comparisons were performed on essential germination rate and percent along with the time of flowering. This study shows that these organic treatments can have a positive effect on the germination percentage, germination rate, and plant growth of cucumbers. This research has provided valuable and statistically significant information to augment claims that organic fertilizers such as rabbit and goat manures along with fermented fruit tea, offer essential nutrients and can be used as a suitable alternative to inorganic fertilizers for those farmers wishing to move into organic farming of cucumbers.
Keywords— Inorganic fertilizer, fruit tea, goat manure, rabbit manure.

Abstract- Gene action, General Combining and specific Combining Ability, Cowpea. Cowpea belongs to the genus Vigna and species unguiculata under the subfamily Faboideae (Papilionoideae) of the family fabaceae (Leguminosae) with a chromosome number of 2n=22. The present investigation was carried out during 2012-2013 at G.B. Pant University of agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar. First experiment was undertaken to estimate the relative importance of combining ability and heterosis for 11 quantitative characters including seed yield in cowpea (Vigina unguculata (L). Walp). Second experiment was conducted to understand the nature of gene effects involved in the inheritance of various quantitative characters. Pant Lobia-1, Pant Lobia-2, Pant Lobia-3, PGCP-12, PGCP-14, Bucksora Local and Pant Vegetable-3 along with their 21 F1’s were evaluated for genetic analysis. Six generations viz; - P1, P2, F1, F2, BC1 and BC2 of each three families, PGCP-12 x PGCP-14 (Family 1), Pant Lobia-1x PGCP-14 (Family 2), Pant Lobia-1x Pant Lobia-3 (Family 3), were evaluated. Analysis of variance revealed significant mean squares of general and specific combining abilities (GCA and SCA) for all the traits studied. Pant lobia-2 and Pant Lobia-3 had good GCA for seed yield per hectare. Pant Lobia-1 was best general combiner for 100-seed weight and number of pods per plant whereas, Pant Lobia-2 was found to be good general combining ability for number of pods per plant, seed yield per hectare and seed weight per plant. The hybrids PGCP-12 x PGCP-14 and PGCP-14 x PVCP-3 revealed highest SCA effects for seed yield per hectare. The magnitude of relative heterosis, heterobelteosis and economic heterosis for seed yield per hectare ranged from -18.24 to 63.34%, -18 .40 to 47.69% and -4.66 to 93.40% respectively. Pant Lobia-2 x Pant Lobia-3 was best cross combination for days to 1st flowering, Pant Lobia-2 x PVCP-3 for days to pod maturity. Cross PGCP-14 x PVCP-3 showed highest value for pod length. Cross PGCP-12 x PGCP-14 gave highest positive SCA effect for green pod weight per plant. For number of seeds per pod Pant Lobia-3 x PGCP-12 was the best cross combination, Cross PGCP-14 x PVCP-3 for seed weight per plant. Significant estimates of additive [d] and dominance [h] effects as well as all three epistasis were observed for most of the quantitative characters in all the three families. The opposite signs of [h] and [l] indicated that duplicate epistasis was important in inheritance for some of the traits in all the three families. The presence of additive gene action suggested that a part of the heterosis can be fixed in subsequent generations to take advantage in further selection. The preponderance of non-additive gene action, however brought out that heterosis component could be explained in hybrid development in cowpea.
Keywords— Cowpea, Heterosis, General Combining Ability, Specific Combining Ability, Gene Action, Yield Traits, Hybrid Performance, Plant Breeding.

Abstract- This research work investigated that livestock land use systems influence grass species composition (Density and Biomass), and basal cover. A number of three livestock land use systems; communal livestock land use system, commercial livestock land use system and the resettlement livestock land use system each replicated thrice were assessed using the botanical sampling technique. Grass species density, species biomass and basal cover were measured using 50cm x 50cm quadrats. The collected data was analysed using Minitab version 17 at P≤0.05 significant level. The results revealed that grass species density, biomass and basal cover were lower in the communal livestock land use system than in resettlement and commercial systems. The prevailing grass species were dissimilar where more unpalatable grasses were found dominating in communal areas than in other systems. The invasive and increaser species were found in the communal livestock land use system than in the commercial and resettlement system. Furthermore, the basal cover was lower in the communal grazing lands than in the resettlement and commercial land use systems. Lack of knowledge, high stocking densities as well as poor grazing strategies were ascribed to these results. As a measure against rangeland degradation, there is a need to devise a monitoring scheme or strategy for early recognition of changes as some grass species maybe vanished. The basal cover changes require close attention and monitoring as very low percentages of basal cover might reduce the production potential of the rangeland.
Keywords— Increaser species, Unpalatable, Invasive species, Stocking density, Species composition.

Abstract-
Introduction: In Zimbabwe there is an agricultural finance gap for smallholder farmers. Formal financial institutions face policy barriers to fully participate in rural financial markets. The study is an analysis policy with a view to recommend measures to improve access to agricultural finance markets in Zimbabwe. Problem Statement: Inappropriate policies and policy failures exacerbate poor access to finance by smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe. Poor access to finance results in low agricultural production and productivity, which in turn leads to perpetuation of poverty amongst smallholder farmers. Methodology: The study is an evidence-based policy analysis. Qualitative data was collected from fifteen key Informant interviews. In addition, secondary data was collected from literature. Seventy-five (75) reference materials were utilised from Google Scholar and Scopus databases. The data was analysed using the framework for policy analysis. Results: From the literature review, there has not been any independent policy analysis focusing on the negative impact of government agrarian policies on access to finance. Government agricultural support programs crowd out financial service providers, thereby reducing access to credit. Conclusion: Government policies should be designed to incentivise private sector financing for agriculture.
Keywords— Policy analysis, financial inclusion, collateral security, Land reform, Micro-finance.

Abstract- A review of literature on socio-economic, economic and marketing aspects of mushroom production are crucial in research because they directly impact the livelihood of farmers, contribute to the rural development by creating employment opportunities, influence market demand and price stability and ultimately determine the overall profitability and sustainability, especially for small scale producers in developing region. Literature review on socio-economic profile of mushroom production reveals that it has significant potential to improve livelihoods, particularly for marginalized communities, by providing a reliable income source, utilizing readily available agricultural waste, and offering a relatively low-cost entry point for small-scale farming, thereby contributing to enhanced nutritional security and promoting sustainable agricultural practices through its ability to generate income while simultaneously recycling waste materials; however, successful implementation requires access to proper training, market linkages, and awareness campaigns to maximize its socio-economic impact. Secondly, a review of the economic aspects of mushroom production reveals that it presents a promising opportunity for income generation, particularly for small-scale farmers, due to its high yield per unit area, ability to utilize agricultural waste as a substrate, and relatively low production costs; however, challenges like market volatility, technical requirements, and limited access to quality spawn can hinder its full economic potential, requiring targeted support and infrastructure development to maximize its benefits for rural communities and economies. Lastly but not the least, the identification of marketing channels, costs, and price spreads in mushroom production literature reveals that direct-to-consumer channels offer the highest marketing efficiency and producer share, while channels with intermediaries like wholesalers and retailers lead to higher costs and lower efficiency. This means that while direct sales provide higher profits for the grower and potentially lower prices for the consumer, they also limit market reach compared to the broader access offered by intermediaries.
Keywords— mushroom production, socio-economic, age, education, income, profit, economics, costs and return, variable cost, fixed cost, marketing channels, price spread, , wholesaler, retailer, producer share, marketing efficiency.

Abstract- There are various species of plants that potentially become a food source of local honey bee (A. cerana) in Wanagama Education Forest. Therefore it is necessary to do research on the development of local honey bee colonies in Wanagama Education Forest. This study was aimed to determine: the development of local honey bee colonies kept in teak and eucalyptus stands, The research was conducted in teak and eucalypt stands of compartment 14, Wanagama Education Forest in September to December 2016. The research was done by measuring the weight of the bee colony, the width of the honeycomb, the length and weight of the individual worker bees once a month. The results showed that the weight increase of bee colony kept in eucalypt stand (102,3%) was higher than that in teak stand (62,6%) in four months. The width of honeycomb increase in eucalypt stand (122.6 %) tended to be higher than that in the teak stand (99.7%). The highest body length (1.20 cm -1.23 cm) and body weight ( 0.052 g -0.055 g) of worker bee was observed in November. Local honey bee colony in Eucalypt stand developed better than that in teak stand. Eucalypt stand in Wanagama Education Forest seems to have a good carrying capacity for keeping local honey bees.
Keywords— Apis cerana, colony growth, local honey bee, teak stand, eucalypt stand.

Abstract- This research examines the function of Integrated Farming Systems (IFS) in the sustainable agricultural approach which address the ill effects of changing climatic conditions on horticulture crops in India. It analyses the various elements of IFS across different agro-climatic regions and assesses its potential to strengthen farmers' resilience against unpredictable weather events like droughts and floods. The study utilizes secondary data from governmental reports, international organizations, academic research, and case studies, employing a descriptive methodology to evaluate environmental and socio-economic advantages, significant obstacles to implementation, and strategies for successful execution. The results indicate that IFS enhances resource efficiency, improves soil health, and promotes biodiversity, while also diversifying income streams, boosting food security, and creating job opportunities. However, widespread adoption is hindered by factors such as lack of awareness, financial constraints, inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to institutional support. The study concludes that a region-specific, policy-driven, and technologically enabled approach—supported by training, financial aid, and market linkages—is vital for scaling up IFS practices across India. This transformation is essential to achieving long-term agricultural sustainability, climate resilience, and rural development.
Keywords— Farmers, climatic conditions, Integrated Farming, sustainability, livelihood.

Abstract- The experiment was conducted for evaluation of nineteen sorghum genotypes for their varying degree of drought tolerance by studying their root system architecture. The genotypes were grown in ‘Phule Root Box’ structure one of which maintained with drought stress and other received regular irrigation considered as control. Root system architecture changes were recorded at post anthesis stage by studying the root profile. The responses under drought stress found increase in root length, root shoot ratio, decreased in root length density, root volume, root diameter, fresh root weight and root number. The genotypes RSV 2408, RSV 2371 and Phule Anuradha showed better performance in root traits such as increased root length, root shoot ratio, better root length density, fresh root weight and decreased root diameter. Considering the overall performance of root traits, the genotype RSV 2408, RSV2371 and Phule Anuradha could be selected as drought tolerant genotypes for their further utilization in crop improvement program.
Keywords— Sorghum, Rabi sorghum, Drought tolerance, Water stress, Root traits, Root length, Root-shoot ratio, Root volume, Root diameter, Root biomass, Crop improvement, Stress adaptation.

Abstract- A field experiment was conducted during rabi2023-24 at Agricultural College Farm, Naira, Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Andhra Pradesh. The experiment was laid out in a split-plot design and replicated thrice. The finger millet variety Indravathi (CFMV 1) was tested in the present experiment. Application of 100% RDF (60:30:30 NPK kg ha-1) recorded significantly higher nutrient uptake by plant, straw and grain over the rest of the nutrient treatments. Among the organic nutrient foliar sprays, foliar application of Panchagavya spraying twice @ 3% at tillering and flowering stages was found to be the best over other three organic foliar sprays tried under organic finger millet cultivation. Application of 100% RDN through Poultry manure (M3) recorded significantly higher soil microbial population i.e., total count of bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes, which was however comparable with application of 50% RDF (NPK kg ha-1) + 50% RDN through Poultry manure (M2). Among the foliar sprays, application of Liquid Azospirillum+ PSB+ KRB+ ZnSB@1.25L ha-1biofertilizer consortium by root dipping at transplanting (S1) recorded. Significantly the highest protein content in grain was recorded with the application of 100% RDF (60:30:30 NPK kg ha-1)(M1), which was superior over the rest of treatments applied and the lowest protein content was recorded with application of 100% RDN through Poultry manure (M3).
Keywords— Recommended dose of nitrogen, Poultry manure, Finger millet, Vermiwash and Panchagavya, Dry matter production.

Abstract- The effectiveness of lye-peeled garlic was evaluated based on its chemical characteristics: allicin content, pyruvic acid, total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), antioxidant activity (AA), and anti-nutritional properties. The garlic cloves were peeled using the lye solutions (2–16%) in a ratio of 1:5 at 40±2 °C exposed for 7 min. The principal component analysis (PCA) was used to develop to assess the effectiveness of lye-peeling on the quality parameters. In addition, a two-layered feed-forward artificial neural network (ANN) was applied to develop a model to assess the quality parameters of peeled garlic. The found regression correlations 1.00000, 0.99572, and 0.99054 found for training, validation, and testing of artificial neural networks reflected the applicability of the developed model in quality assessment as regression performance was found to be 0.99005. It is concluded that 12% lye solution for peeling garlic cloves provides better quality, having less unpeeled garlic surface area. Therefore, this research highlights the application of lye concentration along with suitable temperature for garlic peeling with affecting the phytochemicals and nutritional quality of garlic.
Keywords— Allium sativum, Artificial neural network, Lye peeling, Allicin, Antioxidant activity, Anti-nutritional property.

Abstract- The present research experiments were carried out during Rabi season of the year 2022-23 at the Agricultural Research Farm of Baba Raghav Das Post Graduate College, Deoria (UP) to monitor the population of Helicoverpa armigera by using pheromone traps in chickpea (variety-‘Pusa-261’). The male moth catches of H. armigera was recorded from 4th SMW (1.5 moths/trap/week) and the moths catches increased in subsequent weeks and reached at peak during 6th, 7th and 8th SMW with 4 moths/trap/week, 3.5 moths/trap/week and 4 moths/trap/week, respectively, between 2nd week of February to 4th week of February, at vegetative to reproductive stage of crop. Abiotic factors such as rainfall, maximum and minimum temperatures showed a non-significant negative correlation with male moth catches of Helicoverpa armigera, while maximum and minimum relative humidity exhibited a positive correlation. However, all the weathers parameters together influenced the H. armigera male moth’s catches in the chickpea up to extent of 75.93%.
Keywords— Pheromone trap, H. armigera, correlation, regression and abiotic factors.

Abstract- Sheep production in India is constrained by low reproductive efficiency, with litter size being a major limiting factor in improving productivity. Prolificacy in sheep is largely regulated by fecundity genes such as Booroola fecundity (FecB/BMPR1B) and BMP15, which directly influence ovulation rate and litter size. The present investigation was carried out to detect polymorphisms in these two genes in Kenguri and Kenguri × NARI Suwarna (F1) sheep maintained at the Livestock Research and Information Centre, Veterinary College, Bidar. Blood samples were collected from 30 Kenguri and 30 crossbred sheep. Genomic DNA was isolated using the phenol–chloroform method and evaluated for purity and concentration. PCR amplification was performed using specific primers to amplify a 190 bp fragment of FecB and a 434 bp fragment of BMP15. The PCR products were subjected to restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) using AvaII and StuI restriction enzymes, respectively, and separated by agarose gel electrophoresis. In Kenguri sheep, the FecB locus was monomorphic, with all animals showing the wild-type (++) genotype. However, in the Kenguri × NARI Suwarna (F1) crossbred population, three genotypes were identified: BB (0.16), B+ (0.50), and ++ (0.34). The corresponding allele frequencies were B = 0.41 and + = 0.59. A Chi-square test for Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium revealed significant deviation (χ² = 7.82, p < 0.05) in the crossbred group, indicating possible selection pressure, genetic drift, or non-random mating. At the BMP15 locus, no polymorphism was detected, and all animals across both populations were found to be monomorphic for the wild-type allele. The results clearly demonstrate the successful introgression of the FecB allele through crossbreeding with the NARI Suwarna strain, thereby enhancing the genetic potential for higher prolificacy in Kenguri sheep. These findings provide molecular evidence supporting the role of targeted crossbreeding in improving reproductive traits. The absence of variability at the BMP15 locus suggests that FecB plays a more prominent role in this population.
Keywords— Kenguri sheep; NARI Suwarna; FecB polymorphism; BMP15; PCR-RFLP; Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium; Prolificacy.

Abstract- The present study investigated polymorphisms of the growth hormone (GH) gene and their association with morphometric traits in Kenguri sheep, an important meat-type breed of Karnataka, India. A total of 60 adult sheep (16 males and 44 females) were sampled for genomic DNA isolation using a modified high-salt method. The GH gene fragment (422 bp) spanning exon 2–3 was amplified through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and genotyped by PCR–restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) using the HaeIII enzyme. Two genotypes, AA and AB, were detected, while BB was absent. The frequencies of AA and AB genotypes were 0.417 and 0.583, respectively, with allele frequencies of 0.708 (A) and 0.292 (B). Chi-square analysis indicated significant deviation from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (χ²=10.29, p<0.05). Morphometric traits including body weight, body length, height at wither, and chest girth were recorded. Males showed significantly (p<0.05) higher body weight and chest girth than females, while other traits were comparable. Within genotypes, no significant association (p>0.05) was found between GH polymorphisms and body measurements in either sex. The findings confirm the presence of GH gene variability in Kenguri sheep, with predominance of heterozygotes, although no strong phenotypic association was evident. This suggests that while the GH gene harbours genetic variability, additional markers or larger populations may be required to elucidate its role in growth performance. The study provides baseline molecular information that could support marker-assisted selection (MAS) strategies for sheep improvement programs in India.
Keywords— Kenguri sheep, growth hormone gene, PCR-RFLP, polymorphism, morphometric traits, marker-assisted selection.

Abstract- Green gram (Vigna radiata L.) is autogamous diploid grain legume crop belonging to Leguminosae family. Anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum lindemuthianum is a serious disease in almost all green gram growing areas. Five systemic, five non-systemic and five ready mixed fungicides were evaluated against C. lindemuthianum under in vitro by poison food technique. Among the systemic fungicides, highest mean inhibition of mycelial growth obtained with tebuconazole (100%) followed by carbendazim (78.33%) and difenoconazole (75.18%). Among the non-systemic fungicides, highest mean mycelial growth inhibition was obtained by copper oxychloride with 100 per cent followed by mancozeb with 84.62 per cent. Among ready mixed fungicides, carbendazim + mancozeb and tebuconazole + trifloxystrobin were significantly higher than the rest of the ready mixed fungicides with 100 per cent mycelial growth inhibition followed by azoxystrobin + difenoconazole and captan + hexaconazole with percentage of 95.37 and 83.42, respectively.
Keywords— Green gram, Anthracnose, Colletotrichum lindemuthianum, Fungicides.