Volume-12, Issue-4, April 2026

Abstract

The proliferation of invasive insect pests is often facilitated by favorable environmental conditions, abundant host availability, and the absence of natural enemies. Leucoptera malifoliella (Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae), commonly known as the apple blotch leaf miner, was first reported in India in 2021, causing significant damage to apple orchards in Kashmir. Given its potential threat to the regional apple industry, a two-year field study (2022–2023) was conducted to assess the efficacy of seven insecticidal treatments. Results demonstrated that Thiamethoxam 12.6% + Lambda-Cyhalothrin 9.5% ZC and Quinalphos 25EC + Thiamethoxam 25WG were highly effective in reducing leaf infestation (1.0–6.0% and 3.0–8.33%) and live larval populations (1.0–2.33 and 1.33–2.67 larvae per 20 infested leaves) compared to untreated controls (up to 92.0% infestation and 21 larvae per 20 infested leaves). Similar trends were observed in 2023. The enhanced efficacy of neonicotinoid-containing combinations is attributed to their systemic/translaminar activity and complementary modes of action. These findings suggest that insecticide combinations, particularly those incorporating neonicotinoids, offer promising options for managing L. malifoliella in apple orchards in Kashmir.

Keywords: Leucoptera malifoliella; apple; management; insecticides; efficacy.

References

[1] Ahmad, M. (2004). Potentiation and antagonism of deltamethrin and cypermethrins with organophosphate insecticides in the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 80, 31–42. [2] Ahmad, M. (2007). Potentiation and antagonism of pyrethroids with organophosphate insecticides in Bemisia tabaci (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae). Journal of Economic Entomology, 100, 886–893. [3] Ahmad, M., Saleem, M. A., & Sayyed, A. H. (2009). Efficacy of insecticide mixtures against pyrethroid- and organophosphate-resistant populations of Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Pest Management Science, 65, 266–274. [4] Ascher, K. R. S., Eliahu, M., Ishaaya, I., Zur, M., & Ben Moshe, E. (1986). Synergism of pyrethroid–organophosphorus insecticide mixtures in insects and their toxicity against Spodoptera littoralis larvae. Phytoparasitica, 14, 101–110. [5] Athanassiou, C. G., Kavallieratos, N. G., Arthur, F. H., & Throne, J. E. (2013). Efficacy of a combination of beta-cyfluthrin and imidacloprid, and of beta-cyfluthrin alone, for control of stored-product insects on concrete. Journal of Economic Entomology, 106, 1064–1070. [6] Attique, M. N. R., Khaliq, A., & Sayyed, A. H. (2006). Can resistance to insecticides in Plutella xylostella (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) be overcome by insecticide mixtures? Journal of Applied Entomology, 130, 122–127. [7] Baufeld, P., & Freier, B. (1991). Artificial injury experiments on the damaging effect of Leucoptera malifoliella on apple trees. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 61, 201–209. [8] Biondi, A., Guedes, R. N. C., & Wan, F. (2018). Ecology, worldwide spread, and management of the invasive South American tomato pinworm, Tuta absoluta: Past, present, and future. Annual Review of Entomology, 63, 239–258. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-031616-035524 [9] Bodereau Dubois, B., List, O., Calas List, D., Marques, O., Communal, P. Y., Thany, S. H., & Lapied, B. (2012). Transmembrane potential polarization, calcium influx, and receptor conformational state modulate the sensitivity of imidacloprid-insensitive neuronal insect nicotinic acetylcholine receptors to neonicotinoid insecticides. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 341, 326–339. https://doi.org/10.1124/jpet.111.188060 [10] Byrne, F. J., & Devonshire, A. L. (1991). In vivo inhibition of esterase and acetylcholinesterase by profenofos treatment in the tobacco whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Genn.): Implications for routine biochemical monitoring. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 40, 198–204. [11] Byrne, F. J., & Toscano, N. C. (2006). Uptake and persistence of imidacloprid in grapevines treated by chemigation. Crop Protection, 25, 831–834. [12] Castle, S. J., Byrne, F. J., Bi, J. L., & Toscano, N. C. (2005). Spatial and temporal distribution of imidacloprid and thiamethoxam in citrus and impact on Homalodisca coagulata (Say) populations. Pest Management Science, 61, 75–84. [13] Chapman, R. B., & Penman, D. R. (1980). The toxicity of mixtures of a pyrethroid with organophosphorus insecticides to Tetranychus urticae Koch. Pesticide Science, 11, 600–604. [14] Corbel, V., Raymond, M., Chandre, F., Darriet, F., & Hougard, J. M. (2004). Efficacy of insecticide mixtures against larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae) resistant to pyrethroids and carbamates. Pest Management Science, 60, 375–380. [15] Daglish, G. J. (2008). Impact of resistance on the efficacy of binary combinations of spinosad, chlorpyrifos-methyl and s-methoprene against five stored grain beetles. Journal of Stored Products Research, 44, 71–76. [16] de Souza, J. C., Reis, P. R., de Oliveira, R. L., & Junior, A. I. C. (2006). Eficiência de thiamethoxam no controle do bicho-mineiro do cafeeiro. II—Influência na época de aplicação via irrigação por gotejamento. SBICafé, Viçosa, Brazil. [17] El Guindy, M. A., Rehman, A., El Refai, M., & Abdel Sattar, M. M. (1983). The joint action of mixtures of insecticides, or of insect growth regulators and insecticides, on susceptible and diflubenzuron resistant strains of Spodoptera littoralis Boisd. Pesticide Science, 14, 246–252. [18] Forsline, P. L., Aldwinckle, H. S., Dickson, E. E., Luby, J. J., & Hokanson, S. C. (2010). Collection, maintenance, characterization, and utilization of wild apples of Central Asia. In J. Janick (Ed.), Horticultural reviews. John Wiley & Sons. [19] Golawska, S., Krzyżanowski, R., & Łukasik, I. (2010). Relationship between aphid infestation and chlorophyll content in Fabaceae species. Acta Biologica Cracoviensia Series Botanica, 52(2), 76–80. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10182-010-0026-4 [20] Gomez, S. K., Oosterhuis, D. M., Rajguru, S. N., Johnson, D. R., & Gomez, S. (2004). Foliar antioxidant enzyme responses in cotton after aphid herbivory. Journal of Cotton Science, 8(2), 99–104. [21] Guedes, R. N. C., Smagghe, G., Stark, J. D., & Desneux, N. (2016). Pesticide-induced stress in arthropod pests for optimized integrated pest management programs. Annual Review of Entomology, 61, 43–62. [22] Islam, M. Z., & Khalequzzaman, M. (2002). Potentiation of malathion by other insecticides against adult housefly. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 5, 299–302. [23] Karanika, C., Rumbos, C. I., Agrafioti, P., & Athanassiou, C. G. (2019). Insecticidal efficacy of a binary combination of cyphenothrin and prallethrin, applied as surface treatment against four major stored product insects. Journal of Stored Products Research, 80, 41–49. [24] Keddis, M. E., Abdelsattar, M. M., Issa, Y. H., & El Guindy, M. A. (1986). The toxicity of certain insecticide mixtures to Pectinophora gossypiella Saund. Bulletin of the Entomological Society of Egypt, 14, 251–255. [25] Kenis, M., Auger-Rozenberg, M.-A., Roques, A., Timms, L., Péré, C., Cock, M. J. W., Settele, J., Augustin, S., & Lopez-Vaamonde, C. (2009). Ecological effects of invasive alien insects. Biological Invasions, 11(1), 21–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-008-9318-y [26] Khursheed, S., & Raj, D. (2013). Efficacy of insecticides and biopesticides against hadda beetle, Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) on bitter gourd. Indian Journal of Entomology, 75, 163–166. [27] Khursheed, S., Bhat, Z. A., Mir, M., Rather, H. H., Itoo, H., Mir, M. A., Javeed, K., & Shah, R. A. (2024). Using bio pesticides to control the black-headed fireworm, Rhopobota naevana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), on apple, Malus domestica, in the mid hill Himalayas of Kashmir. *Journal of Eco-friendly Agriculture, 19*(1), 112–121. https://doi.org/10.48165/jefa.2024.19.01.20 [28] Martin, T., Ochou, O. G., Vaissayre, M., & Fournier, D. (2003). Organophosphorus insecticides synergise pyrethroids in the resistant strain of cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) from West Africa. Journal of Economic Entomology, 92, 468–474. [29] Musacchi, S., & Serra, S. (2018). Apple fruit quality: Overview of pre harvest factors. Scientia Horticulturae, 234, 409–430. [30] Narahashi, T. (1992). Nerve membrane Na⁺ channels as targets of insecticides. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 13, 236–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-6147(92)90075-H [31] Paudyal, S., Opit, G. P., Osekre, E. A., Arthur, F. H., Bingham, G. V., Payton, M. E., Danso, J. K., Manu, N., & Nsiah, E. P. (2017). Field evaluation of the long lasting treated storage bag, deltamethrin-incorporated (ZeroFly® Storage Bag), as a barrier to insect pest infestation. Journal of Stored Products Research, 70, 44–52. [32] Phokela, A., Singh, S. P., & Mehrotra, K. N. (1999). Effect of synergists on pyrethroids toxicity in adults of Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner). Pesticide Research Journal, 11, 62–64. [33] Rather, S., & Buhroo, A. A. (2015). Arrival sequence, abundance and host plant preference of the apple leaf miner Lyonetia clerkella Linn. (Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae) in Kashmir. Natural Sciences, 13, 25–31. [34] Rovesti, L., & Deseo, K. V. (1991). Effectiveness of neem seed kernel extract against Leucoptera malifoliella Costa (Lep., Lyonetiidae). Journal of Applied Entomology, 111, 231–236. [35] Rumbos, C. I., Dutton, A. C., & Athanassiou, C. G. (2018). Insecticidal effect of spinetoram and thiamethoxam applied alone or in combination for the control of major stored product beetle species. Journal of Stored Products Research, 75, 56–63. [36] Sammour, E. A., Kandil, M. A. H., Abdel Aziz, N. F., Agamy, E. A. M., El Bakry, A. M., & Abdelmaksoud, N. M. (2018). Field evaluation of new formulation types of essential oils against Tuta absoluta and their side effects on tomato plants. Acta Scientific Agriculture, 2(6), 15–22. [37] Shao, X., Xia, S., Durkin, K. A., & Casida, J. E. (2013). Insect nicotinic receptor interactions in vivo with neonicotinoid, organophosphorus, and methylcarbamate insecticides and a synergist. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110, 17273–17277. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1316369110 [38] Subić, M. (2015). Mogućnosti i ogranicenja suzbijanja moljca kružnih mina (Leucoptera malifoliella Costa) (Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae) u Međimurju. Glasilo Biljne Zaštite, 15, 195–206. [39] Taillebois, E., & Thany, S. H. (2016). The differential effect of low dose mixtures of four pesticides on the pea aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum. Insects, 7(4), Article 53. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects7040053 [40] Taillebois, E., & Thany, S. H. (2022). The use of insecticide mixtures containing neonicotinoids as a strategy to limit insect pests: Efficiency and mode of action. Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology, 184, Article 105126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pestbp.2022.105126 [41] Vais, H., Atkinson, S., Eldursi, N., Devonshire, A. L., Williamson, M. S., & Usherwood, P. N. R. (2000). A single amino acid change makes a rat neuronal sodium channel highly sensitive to pyrethroid insecticides. FEBS Letters, 470, 135–138. [42] Vidau, C., Diogon, M., Aufauvre, J., Fontbonne, R., Viguès, B., Brunet, J. L., Texier, C., Biron, D. G., Blot, N., El Alaoui, H., Belzunces, L. P., & Delbac, F. (2011). Exposure to sublethal doses of fipronil and thiacloprid greatly increases mortality of honey bees previously infected by Nosema ceranae. PLoS ONE, 6(6), e21550. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0021550 [43] Wakil, W., Ashfaq, M., Ghazanfar, M. U., & Riasat, T. (2010). Susceptibility of stored product insects to enhanced diatomaceous earth. Journal of Stored Products Research, 46, 248–249. [44] Wang, C., Singh, N., Zha, C., & Cooper, R. (2016). Efficacy of selected insecticide sprays and aerosols against the common bed bug, Cimex lectularius (Hemiptera: Cimicidae). Insects, 7(1), Article 5. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects7010005 [45] Yi, F., Zou, C., Hu, Q., & Hu, M. (2012). The joint action of destruxins and botanical insecticides (rotenone, azadirachtin, and paeonolum) against the cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii. Molecules, 17(6), 7533–7543. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules17067533.

Abstract

This investigation aimed to explore the molecular diversity of 117 black gram genotypes employing Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) markers. Out of 43 SSR markers studied, 15 markers showed polymorphism. Polymorphic Information Content (PIC) values ranged from 0.4 to 0.7 with a mean of 0.6. A total of 52 alleles, ranging from three to four with a mean of 3.4 alleles per locus, were detected. Population structure analysis grouped the 117 genotypes into four sub-populations. UPGMA cluster analysis grouped the genotypes into three main clusters: Cluster I (51 genotypes), Cluster II (19 genotypes), and Cluster III (47 genotypes). Principal coordinate analysis indicated that the genotypes were distinctly separated from one another. The results of the unweighted neighbor-joining clustering tree and PCoA analysis were in close correspondence with the results of model-based STRUCTURE analysis. The findings provide valuable insights into the genetic diversity of black gram, which can assist plant breeders in developing improved cultivars.

Keywords: Simple Sequence Repeats (SSR) Markers, Polymorphic Information Content, Genetic Diversity, Population Structure, Black gram.

References

[1] Earl, D. A., & Vonholdt, B. M. (2012). Structure Harvester: A website and program for visualizing STRUCTURE output and implementing the Evanno method. Conservation Genetics Resources, 4, 359–361. [2] Evanno, G., Regnaut, S., & Goudet, J. (2005). Detecting the number of clusters of individuals using the software STRUCTURE: A simulation study. Molecular Ecology, 14, 2611–2620. [3] Gangadhar, L., Nikhil, A., Rathore, M., Shanmugavadivel, P. S., Lal, G. M., & Gayathri, G. (2023). Morphological variability and molecular diversity in blackgram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper) genotypes using SSR markers. International Journal of Plant & Soil Science, 35, 2050–2062. [4] Gupta, S. K., Souframanien, J., & Gopalakrishna, T. (2008). Construction of a genetic linkage map of black gram, Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper, based on molecular markers and comparative studies. Genome, 51, 628–637. [5] Kaewwongwal, A., Kongjaimun, A., Somta, P., Chankaew, S., Yimram, T., & Srinives, P. (2015). Genetic diversity of the black gram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper] gene pool as revealed by SSR markers. Breeding Science, 65, 127–137. [6] Korattukudy, C. A., Samy, A. P. L. M. A., Rengasamy, K., Devadhasan, S., Shunmugavel, S., Yasin, J. K., & Madhavan, A. P. (2022). Genetic diversity analysis in blackgram (Vigna mungo) genotypes using microsatellite markers for resistance to yellow mosaic virus. Plant Protection Science, 58, 110–124. [7] Murray, M. G., & Thompson, W. F. (1980). Rapid isolation of high molecular weight plant DNA. Nucleic Acids Research, 8(19), 4321–4326. [8] Mwangi, J. W., Okoth, O. R., Kariuki, M. P., & Piero, N. M. (2021). Genetic and phenotypic diversity of selected Kenyan mung bean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) genotypes. Journal of Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, 19, 1–14. [9] Perrier, X., & Jacquemoud-Collet, J. P. (2006). DARwin software. http://darwin.cirad.fr/darwin [10] Prajapati, P. K., & Singh, A. P. (2022). Investigation of molecular variability on MYMV-resistant and susceptible blackgram species using SSR marker. International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, 9, 192–215. [11] Pritchard, J. K., Stephens, M., & Donnelly, P. (2000). Inference of population structure using multi-locus genotype data. Genetics, 155, 945–959. [12] Pyngrope, A. H., Noren, S. K., Wricha, T., Sen, D., Khanna, V. K., & Pattanayak, A. (2015). Genetic diversity analysis of blackgram [Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper] using morphological and molecular markers. International Journal of Applied and Pure Science and Agriculture, 1, 104–113. [13] Sathees, N., Shoba, D., Mani, N., Saravanan, S., Kumari, M. P., & Pillai, M. A. (2022). Tagging of SSR markers associated with yellow mosaic virus resistance in black gram (Vigna mungo (L.) Hepper). Euphytica, 218, Article 23. [14] Singh, L., Dhillon, G. S., Kaur, S., Dhaliwal, S. K., Kaur, A., Malik, P., Kumar, A., Gill, R. K., & Kaur, S. (2022). Genome-wide association study for yield and yield-related traits in diverse blackgram panel (Vigna mungo L. Hepper) reveals novel putative alleles for future breeding programs. Frontiers in Genetics, 13, Article 849016. [15] Yeh, F. C., Boyle, R., Yang, R. C., Ye, Z., Mao, J. X., & Yeh, D. (1999). POPGENE. http://www.ualberta.ca/~fyeh/popgene.html.

Abstract

This research develops a quantitative model for estimating reactive oxygen species (ROS) in ambient air using a chromo-stoichiometric approach applied to the traditional Schönbein scale. Starting from the stoichiometric relationship between ozone (O₃) and water vapor as precursors of hydroxyl radicals (OH·), and considering ozone as the limiting reagent, a direct conversion is established between the Schönbein number and the OH· emission rate expressed in mol·cm⁻³·s⁻¹. This transformation results in the so-called "Monagas Variant," which converts a qualitative tool based on the colorimetric change of potassium iodide reagent strips into a quantitative method for radical estimation. The model integrates the conversion of ozone concentrations (ppb) to amount of substance, the calculation of absolute humidity, and the application of stoichiometric relationships to determine the theoretical production of OH· during a standard 8-hour exposure period. The results allow for the classification of ambient oxidation into three levels (LOW, MIDDLE, and HIGH), defined by ranges of radical emission. Experimental validation, performed in a 1 m³ tank with an Open Air Factor (OAF) generator and through comparative tests with 17.5% hydrogen peroxide, showed consistent agreement between the observed color change and the values calculated by the model. The data obtained, on the order of 10⁶–10⁷ mol·cm⁻³·s⁻¹, are consistent with values reported in the literature on ozone photolysis at air-water interfaces and atmospheric OH· production. Furthermore, it is shown that reliable determinations can be made in just 90 minutes, significantly reducing the evaluation time compared to the full 8-hour cycle. The Monagas Variant thus constitutes an accessible, reproducible, and low-cost tool for monitoring environmental oxidative capacity and assessing OAF in indoor spaces, offering a practical solution for the rapid control of advanced oxidation processes and indoor air quality.

Keywords: Hydroxyl radicals (OH·), Reactive oxygen species (ROS), Monagas Variant, Schönbein scale, Open Air Factor (OAF), Chromo-stoichiometry, Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs), Atmospheric environmental chemistry.

References

[1] Anglada, J. M., Martins-Costa, M. T. C., Ruiz-López, M. F., & Francisco, J. S. (2014). Spectroscopic signatures of ozone at the air-water interface and photochemistry implications. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 111(32), 11618–11623. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1411727111 [2] Carslaw, N., Fletcher, L., Heard, D., Ingham, T., & Walker, H. (2017). Significant OH production under surface cleaning and air cleaning conditions: Impact on indoor air quality. Indoor Air, 27(6), 1091–1100. https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12394 [3] García Raurich, J., Torres Lerma, A., Monagas Asensio, P., Martínez Vimbert, R., Arañó Loyo, M., & Martínez Roldán, T. (2023). Stoichiometry and kinetics of hydroxyl radicals in air quality. IJOEAR, 9(6). https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.8094725 [4] George, C., Ammann, M., D'Anna, B., Donaldson, D. J., & Nizkorodov, S. A. (2015). Heterogeneous photochemistry in the atmosphere. Chemical Reviews, 115(10), 4218–4258. https://doi.org/10.1021/cr500648z [5] Held, P. (2015). An introduction to reactive oxygen species: Measurement of ROS in cells (TechNote). BioTek Instruments, Inc. https://www.biotek.com/resources/white-papers/an-introduction-to-reactive-oxygen-species-measurement-of-ros-in-cells/ [6] Ruiz-Lopez, M. F., Francisco, J. S., Martins-Costa, M. T. C., & Anglada, J. M. (2020). Molecular reactions at aqueous interfaces. Nature Reviews Chemistry, 4(9), 459–475. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41570-020-0203-2 [7] Stone, D., Whalley, L. K., & Heard, D. E. (2012). Tropospheric OH and HO2 radicals: Field measurements and model comparisons. Chemical Society Reviews, 41(19), 6348–6404. https://doi.org/10.1039/c2cs35140d [8] University Consortium for Atmospheric Research. (2025, March 15). Making and using ozone indicators. UCAR Center for Science Education. http://www.ucar.edu/learn/1_7_2_29t.htm [9] Workman, M., & Frye, K. (2025, March 10). Measuring tropospheric ozone. JoVE Journal (Science Education Collection), DePaul University. https://web.unica.it/static/resources/cms/documents/joveprotocol10024measuringtroposphericozone.pdf [10] Domènech, X., Jardim, W. F., & Litter, M. (2025, March 20). Procesos avanzados de oxidación para la eliminación de contaminantes. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/237764122_Procesos_avanzados_de_oxidacion_para_la_eliminacion_de_c ontaminantes [11] World Health Organization. (2021). WHO global air quality guidelines: Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240034228 [12] Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (n.d.). *Table Z-1 limits for air contaminants - 1910.1000*. Retrieved March 12, 2025, from https://www.osha.gov/annotated-pels/table-z-1 [13] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (n.d.). Substances added to food (formerly EAFUS): Hydrogen peroxide. Retrieved March 12, 2025, from https://hfpappexternal.fda.gov/scripts/fdcc/index.cfm?set=FoodSubstances&id=HYDROGENPEROXIDE [14] U.S. Food and Drug Administration. (n.d.). Substances added to food (formerly EAFUS): Ozone. Retrieved March 12, 2025, from https://hfpappexternal.fda.gov/scripts/fdcc/index.cfm?set=FoodSubstances&id=OZON.

Abstract

Mechanization improves productivity, reduces labour dependence, and increases operational efficiency. Government subsidy programs aim to accelerate the adoption of agricultural machinery, but verifying proper utilization and ensuring compliance remain challenges. This study presents an industry-driven, pilot-tested framework developed by Agricultural Farm Machinery Manufacturer, integrating GPS-enabled smart telematics with the Indian FARMS (Farmer Assisted Remote Monitoring System) application. The framework focuses on Round Balers deployed under Crop Residue Management (CRM) subsidy programs. Pilot deployment demonstrates real-time monitoring, operational analytics, and compliance verification. Farmers also have access to VIN-based monitoring of their machines. Full integration with the FARMS platform is pending government approval. Key outcomes include transparency in subsidy utilization, optimized machine deployment, predictive maintenance, and evidence-based policy support. The study also addresses technical, economic, connectivity, and legal considerations for implementation.

Keywords: Agricultural mechanization, GPS telematics, subsidy compliance, FARMS platform, machine utilization, digital agriculture, public–private collaboration.

References

[1] Mehta, C. R., & Singh, R. (2020). GPS applications in precision agriculture and farm machinery. Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 57(2), 45–52. [2] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2021). Digital agriculture: Data-driven mechanization. FAO. [3] Tamil Nadu Department of Agriculture. (2023). Pilot project on GPS-based subsidy monitoring. Government of Tamil Nadu. [4] Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare. (2023). FARMS app guidelines. Government of India. [5] Singh, G., & Sharma, A. (2022). ICT-enabled solutions for farm machinery management. Agricultural Engineering Today, 46(3), 15–22. [6] Indian Council of Agricultural Research. (2023). Annual report on farm mechanization in India. ICAR. [7] Bureau of Indian Standards. (2022). Standards for telematics devices in agricultural machinery. BIS. [8] Narayanan, P., & Jha, K. (2019). IoT-enabled farm mechanization: Opportunities and challenges. Agricultural Reviews, 40(4), 276–283.

Abstract

The present case involved a 6-year-old Mehsana buffalo presented in Chitapadariya village, Jaijaipur block, Sakti district of Chhattisgarh, with a history of prolonged second stage of labor lasting more than 12 hours, with rupture of the water bag 6 hours prior to examination. The animal was restrained in left lateral recumbency, sedated with low-dose xylazine (0.05 mg/kg IM), and administered epidural anesthesia with 2% lignocaine. A ventrolateral approach was adopted. The uterus was sutured with Vicryl No. 2 in an inverting suture pattern before being replaced into the abdominal cavity after thorough lavage with normal saline and metronidazole solution. Muscle and peritoneal layers were closed with Vicryl No. 2 in a lockstitch pattern, and the skin with Silk No. 2 in a simple interrupted pattern. Postoperative care included administration of Intacef-Tazo (10 mg/kg IM for 7 days), meloxicam (0.5 mg/kg for 5 days), and Tribivet (15 ml IM for 5 days). The surgical site was cleaned daily with povidone-iodine, and skin sutures were removed after 10 days. The buffalo recovered uneventfully with no postoperative complications.

Keywords: Dystocia, Cesarean section, Field surgery, Mehsana Buffalo, Chhattisgarh.

References

[1] Purohit, G. N., Barolia, Y., Shekhar, C., & Kumar, P. (2011). Maternal dystocia in cows and buffaloes: A review. Open Journal of Animal Sciences, 1(2), 41–53. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojas.2011.12006 [2] Roberts, S. J. (1986). Diseases and accidents during the gestation period. In S. J. Roberts (Ed.), Veterinary obstetrics and genital diseases (Theriogenology) (pp. 230–233). Woodstock, VT. [3] Singla, V. K., Gandotra, V. K., Prabhakar, S., & Sharma, R. D. (1990). Incidence of various types of dystocia in cows. Indian Veterinary Journal, 67, 283–284. [4] Schultz, G., Tyler, W., Moll, D., & Constantinescu, M. (2008). Surgical approaches for cesarean section in cattle. Canadian Veterinary Journal, 49(6), 565–568. [5] Peshin, P. K., & Kumar, A. (1983). Haemocytological and biochemical effects of xylazine in buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal, 60, 981–986. [6] Khurma, J., Choudhary, C. R., Sharma, V., Deeksha, & Singh, K. P. (2017). Cesarean section in Murrah buffaloes. Indian Journal of Animal Research, Article B-3370. https://doi.org/10.18805/ijar.B-3370.

Abstract

This study explores the effect of different nitrogen levels and biofertilizer on enhancing growth and yield of cauliflower. To evaluate the results, a field experiment was carried out at Agriculture Research Farm, C B G Ag PG College, BKT during 2024-25. The experiment was laid out in a factorial randomized block design with two factors in which the first factor contains three levels of nitrogen (0, 60, and 90 kg N ha⁻¹) and the second factor consists of two levels of biofertilizer i.e., Azotobacter (0 and 2 kg ha⁻¹), applied in different combinations with three replications, resulting in six treatment combinations: T₁ - Absolute control (0 kg N ha⁻¹ + no biofertilizer), T₂ - 0 kg N ha⁻¹ + Azotobacter @ 2 kg ha⁻¹, T₃ - 60 kg N ha⁻¹ + no biofertilizer, T₄ - 60 kg N ha⁻¹ + Azotobacter @ 2 kg ha⁻¹, T₅ - 90 kg N ha⁻¹ + no biofertilizer, and T₆ - 90 kg N ha⁻¹ + Azotobacter @ 2 kg ha⁻¹. The interaction effect results revealed that the yield parameters increased with certain levels of nitrogen along with Azotobacter inoculation. Maximum number of curds per plot (27.78), curd diameter (26.63 cm), fresh and dry weight of curd (159.83 g and 62.90 g), yield per plot (270.74 g) and yield per hectare (21.52 Q) were found with T₆ (90 kg N ha⁻¹ + Azotobacter @ 2 kg ha⁻¹), which was followed by T₅ (90 kg N ha⁻¹ + no biofertilizer). However, treatment T₁ (no nitrogen and without Azotobacter) resulted in the lowest yield significantly. It was observed that the optimum dose of nitrogen with biofertilizer can reduce the need for extra nitrogen application, as nitrogen is also received through organic source (Azotobacter @ 2 kg ha⁻¹). Therefore, biofertilizer has been identified as an alternative to chemical fertilizer that increases soil fertility and crop production in sustainable farming.

Keywords: Nitrogen levels, Biofertilizers, Azotobacter, Interaction effect, Cauliflower

References

[1] Bashyal, L. N. (2013). Response of cauliflower to nitrogen fixing biofertilizer and graded levels of nitrogen. Journal of Agriculture and Environment, 12, 41–50. https://doi.org/10.3126/aej.v12i0.756 [2] Giri, B., Kumar, J., Thapa, P., Lal, M., & Chaudhary, R. P. (2023). The effect of different rates of nitrogen fertilizer application on the growth, yield and postharvest life of cauliflower. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 12(7), 307–309. [3] Jat, M. L., Patel, M. M., & Bana, M. L. (2015). Effect of different spacing and nitrogen levels on growth and yield of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis L.) under north Gujarat condition. Annals of Agriculture Research, 36(1), 72–76. [4] Kachari, M., & Korla, B. (2009). Effect of biofertilizers on growth and yield of cauliflower cv. PSB K-1. Indian Journal of Horticulture, 66(4), 496–501. [5] Kale, T. S., Ghawade, S. M., Sonkamble, A. M., Paslawar, A. N., Gahukar, S. J., & Hadole, S. S. (2026). Effect of integrated nitrogen management on growth and yield contributing characters in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). International Journal of Advanced Biochemistry Research, 8(10S), 281–286. [6] Kamdi, T. S., Sonkamble, P., & Joshi, S. (2014). Effect of organic manure and biofertilizers on seed quality of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.). The Bioscan, 9(3), 1011–1013. [7] Kashyap, L., Challa, V. R. P., & Tiwari, A. (2017). Effect of integrated nutrient management practices on carbon sequestration, carbon stock, plant growth parameters and economics of cauliflower. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 6(7), 1407–1415. [8] Kashyap, S., Sandhu, S. K., & Biswa, B. (2025). Effect of growing environment and meteorological parameters on development of anthracnose disease of blackgram. Journal of Food Legumes, 38(2), 307–311. [9] Khedkar, S. P., Mali, P. C., Khandekar, R. G., Salvi, V. G., Salvi, B. R., & Malshe, K. V. (2023). Influence of bio-fertilizers and organic manures on growth and yield of turmeric. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 12(8), 2825–2830. [10] Kumar, A., Singh, G., Dhillon, N. S., & Verma, L. K. (2017). Impact of nitrogen on growth and yield of broccoli (Brassica oleracea L. var. italica) under open and protected environment. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 6(7), 1407–1415. [11] Kumar, R., Verma, S., Singh, V., & Sharma, A. (2020). Effect of integrated use of nitrogen and biofertilizers on growth, yield and economics of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 9(5), 2041–2044. https://doi.org/10.20546/ijcmas.2017.607.168 [12] Sanober Ali, Sapkal, D. R., Pandey, S., Kumar, C., & Sanyal, S. (2023). Effect of bio-fertilizers with chemical fertilizers on growth, yield, and quality of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis). International Journal of Novel Research and Development, 8(5). (ISSN: 2456-4184) [13] Sharma, M., Gupta, R., & Thakur, A. (2020). Effect of biofertilizer and nitrogen levels on growth and yield of cauliflower. Vegetable Science, 47(1), 68–72. [14] Shreshtha, S., Devkota, D., & Paudel, B. (2022). Effect of biofertilizer (Azotobacter chroococum) on growth and yield of cauliflower in Palung. Plant Physiology and Soil Chemistry, 2(1), 46–51. [15] Singh, V. N., & Singh, S. S. (2005). Effect of inorganic and bio-fertilization production of cauliflower. Vegetable Science, 32(2), 146–149. [16] Thapa, C., Pandey, S., Kumar, V., & Kumar, M. (2022). Effect of integrated nutrient management on growth and yield characteristics of cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis cv. Snow Crown). Biological Forum – An International Journal, 14(4), 31–39. [17] Yamgar, V. T., Kathmale, D. K., Belhekar, P. S., Patil, R. C., & Patil, P. S. (2001). Effect of different level of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium and split application of N on growth and yield of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Indian Journal of Agronomy, 46(2), 372–374. [18] Zaki, M. F., Tantawy, A. S., Saleh, S. A., & Helmy, Y. I. (2012). [Title missing]. Environment and Ecology, 41(4D), 3049–3053.

Abstract

The global fertilizer industry sustains more than eight billion people and represents one of the most geopolitically sensitive commodity systems on Earth. This comprehensive review systematically examines fertilizer production, consumption, import dependence, and trade dynamics across the United States of America, Israel, Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) nations, and India – four geopolitically and agriculturally critical actors representing diverse positions on the fertilizer supply-demand spectrum. Against this backdrop, the paper analyses the potential cascading impacts of a hypothetical Iran-United States-Israel military conflict, which if it were to occur, would fundamentally disrupt Strait of Hormuz transit, elevate global urea prices by an estimated 19–28%, increase insurance premiums by over 50%, and reduce tanker traffic through the strait by approximately 75%. Drawing upon recent data from the International Fertilizer Association (IFA), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Bank, S&P Global Platts, and peer-reviewed agronomic literature, the study quantifies production capacity, consumption intensity, import vulnerability, and price transmission mechanisms for each examined country or region. The review further evaluates the historical precedent of the 2022 Russia-Ukraine conflict's fertilizer disruption, develops a multi-dimensional crisis-impact framework, and proposes evidence-based policy recommendations encompassing strategic reserves, supply diversification, biological input integration, and regional cooperation agreements. The findings reveal that India would face the most acute vulnerability among reviewed nations, with annual fertilizer import expenditure exceeding USD 12 billion and strategic reserve margins of less than 45 days. Gulf nations would simultaneously face market dislocation despite being major exporters, while the United States would confront price shock transmission affecting domestic agricultural competitiveness. The paper concludes that such a conflict would represent a structural stress test exposing systemic fragilities in global fertilizer architecture and would catalyse urgently needed diversification of supply chains, input substitution technologies, and international governance frameworks.

Keywords: Nitrogen fertilizer, Strait of Hormuz disruption, Iran conflict scenario, Food security geopolitics, India fertilizer import, Biofertilizer, Strategic fertilizer reserves.

References

[1] Al Jazeera. (2026, April 14). *Iran war: What is happening on day 46 of the US-Iran conflict?* https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/4/14/iran-war [2] Argus Media. (2026, April 5). Argus Fertilizer Daily: Gulf disruption drives global urea surge. Argus Media Group. [3] Britannica. (2026, April 14). 2026 Iran war. https://www.britannica.com/event/2026-Iran-war [4] CNN. (2026, April 13). Trump warns Iran as US military blockade on Iranian ports takes effect. https://www.cnn.com/2026/04/13/world/live-news/iran-us-war-trump-hormuz [5] Cordesman, A. H. (2024). The Gulf and the geopolitics of critical minerals and agricultural inputs. Center for Strategic and International Studies. [6] Department of Fertilizers, Government of India. (2025). Annual report 2024–25. Ministry of Chemicals and Fertilizers. [7] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2026, April 3). FAO Chief Economist warns of severe global food security risks from disruption to Strait of Hormuz trade corridor. FAO. [8] Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. (2025). World food and agriculture statistical yearbook 2025. FAO. [9] Fertiliser Association of India. (2025). Fertiliser statistics 2024–25. FAI. [10] Gulf Petrochemicals and Chemicals Association. (2025). Annual fertilizer report 2025. GPCA. [11] ICIS. (2026). ICIS fertilizer price reports — Urea, DAP, potash, ammonia (March–April). ICIS. [12] International Fertilizer Association. (2025). Assessment of fertilizer use by crop at the global level. IFA. [13] International Fertilizer Association. (2025). World fertilizer trends and outlook to 2028. IFA. [14] Ma'aden (Saudi Arabian Mining Company). (2025). Annual report 2024. Ma'aden. [15] McKinsey Agriculture Practice. (2022). A reflection on global food security challenges amid the war in Ukraine. McKinsey & Company. [16] Mordor Intelligence. (2026). Biopesticides market — 11% CAGR forecast 2026–2031. Mordor Intelligence. [17] Mosaic Company. (2025). 2024 annual report to shareholders. The Mosaic Company. [18] Nayak, K. K. (2021). Bacillus subtilis in sustainable agriculture: Versatility in pest management and plant growth promotion. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 178, Article 104210. [19] Nutrien Ltd. (2025). 2024 annual report. Nutrien. [20] OCP Group. (2025). Annual report and sustainability report 2024. OCP S.A. [21] Orozco-Mosqueda, M. C., Rocha-Padilla, A., Glick, B. R., & Santoyo, G. (2023). Plant growth-promoting bacteria as biofortification agents. Trends in Plant Science, 28(6), 645–659. [22] Precedence Research. (2025). Agricultural biologicals market size, USD 68.36 Bn by 2035. Precedence Research. [23] Qatar Fertiliser Company. (2025). Operations and production report 2024–25. QAFCO. [24] Riaz, S., Ahmad, M., Hassan, M. U., & [Additional authors if available]. (2021). Bacillus subtilis as multifunctional bioinoculant for sustainable agriculture. Microbiological Research, 254, Article 126903. [25] S&P Global. (2026, March 13). Middle East war impacts global food security over fertilizer, fuel and freight. S&P Global Commodity Insights. [26] SABIC (Saudi Basic Industries Corporation). (2025). Annual report 2024. SABIC. [27] Smil, V. (2004). Enriching the Earth: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the transformation of world food production. MIT Press. [28] Springer Nature. (2025). Biofertilizers in sustainable agriculture: Mechanisms, applications, and future prospects. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44279-025-00318-0 [29] United States Geological Survey. (2025). Mineral commodity summaries 2025: Potash, phosphate rock, nitrogen. USGS. [30] Wikipedia. (2026, April 14). 2026 Iran war. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2026_Iran_war [31] World Bank. (2025). Commodity markets outlook: Fertilizer price projections 2025–2027. World Bank Group. [32] World Bank. (2026, April). Food security update: Geopolitical impacts on fertilizer markets. World Bank Group.

Abstract

In Chandel district of Manipur, almost every rural household rears one or two livestock along with 5-10 desi birds under backyard poultry farming (BPF). Rearing of desi chickens is interwoven with the culture and tradition of tribal people and is kept for ritual purposes. According to traditional knowledge, black-coloured birds are used for medicinal purposes. However, the poultry sector in the district has remained rather stagnant due to the low productivity of native poultry varieties reared under the backyard system. Vanaraja is a breed of choice under the backyard system to augment poultry production in Chandel district of Manipur due to its coloured plumage, disease resistance, coupled with higher egg production and faster growth rate. This paper documents the horizontal spread of Vanaraja poultry birds following Front Line Demonstrations (FLD) conducted by Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK), Chandel, and assesses the impact on livelihood security of tribal farm women.

Keywords: Vanaraja, Horizontal spread, Front Line Demonstration, Backyard poultry, Chandel district, Manipur.

References

[1] ICAR-Directorate of Poultry Research. (2015). Vanaraja poultry: A dual purpose bird for rural backyard farming. Hyderabad, India. [2] Singh, R. K., Sharma, P., & Kumar, A. (2017). Performance of Vanaraja birds under backyard system in rural areas. Indian Journal of Poultry Science, 52(2), 215–218. [3] Roy, A., Datta, S., Roy, P. S., Biswas, S., & Mishra, S. P. (2018). Comparative assessment of production and hatchability performance of Vanaraja, Rhode Island Red and indigenous poultry birds under backyard rearing system at West Bengal. International Journal of Livestock Research, 8(7), 296–303. [4] Devi, A. A., Levish, K., Singh, K. S., Monsang, T. L., Anal, P. L., & Kumar, H. (2025). Comparative performance of CARI Nirbheek, Vanaraja and local desi bird under backyard system of rearing in Chandel District of Manipur, India. Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology, 28(9), 888–893. [5] Kumar, V., Rajkumar, U., Prince, L. L. L., Rama Rao, S. V., & Chatterjee, R. N. (2021). Geographical distribution of Vanaraja chicken variety and its impact on poultry sector in India. Indian Poultry Science Association. [6] Banja, B. K., Ananth, P. N., Singh, S., Behera, S., & Jayasankar, P. (2017). A study on the frontline demonstration of backyard poultry in rural Odisha. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 29(5).

Abstract

This study aims to determine the effect of papaya peel extract (Carica papaya L.) administered through drinking water on the percentage of external offal in 35-day-old broiler chickens. The study was conducted at the Sesetan Farm, Faculty of Animal Science, Udayana University in February 2025. The study involved 80 broilers that were given papaya peel extract in drinking water at different concentrations, namely 4%, 6% and 8%. The study was designed using a completely randomized design (CRD) with 4 treatments and 5 replications: P0 as the control (drinking water without papaya peel extract), P1 (drinking water with 4% papaya peel extract), P2 (drinking water with 6% papaya peel extract), and P3 (drinking water with 8% papaya peel extract). The variables observed were the percentage of external offal (head, neck, feet, blood, and feathers). The results showed that the administration of papaya peel extract at concentrations of 4%, 6% and 8% had no significant difference (P>0.05) on external offal. Therefore, this study concluded that the administration of papaya peel extract at concentrations of 4%, 6% and 8% in drinking water produced similar results on the percentage of external offal (head, neck, feet, blood and feathers) in 35-day-old broiler chickens.

Keywords: Broiler chickens, External offal, Papaya peel extract.

References

[1] Achmad, G. A., Darwati, S., & Sumantri, C. (2018). [Title missing]. Jurnal Ilmu dan Teknologi Peternakan Tropis, 6(1), 38–47. [2] Armando Paat, C. S. (2020). Pemanfaatan tepung kulit buah pepaya (Carica papaya L.) dalam ransum. [Journal Name], 40(2), 418–427. [3] Badan Pusat Statistik. (2022). *Produksi tanaman buah-buahan di Indonesia tahun 2021–2022*. [4] Badan Pusat Statistik. (2023). *Rata-rata harian konsumsi protein per kapita dan konsumsi kalori per kapita tahun 1990–2024*. [5] Badan Pusat Statistik. (2023). *Rata-rata konsumsi per kapita seminggu beberapa macam bahan makanan penting, 2007–2023*. [6] Badan Pusat Statistik. (2024). Jumlah penduduk pertengahan tahun (Ribu Jiwa), 2022–2024. [7] Badan Pusat Statistik. (2024). Produksi daging ayam ras pedaging menurut provinsi (Ton), 2024. [8] Badan Pusat Statistik. (2021). Jumlah ayam pedaging di Indonesia. https://dataindonesia.id/sektor-riil/detail/jumlah-ayam-pedaging-di-indonesia-capai-311-miliar-pada-2021 [9] Chen, M., Xie, W., Jiang, S., Wang, X., Yan, H., & Gao, C. (2020). Molecular signaling and nutritional regulation in the context of poultry feather growth and regeneration. Frontiers in Physiology, 11, Article 1609, 1–14. [10] David, L. S., Anwar, M. N., Abdollahi, M. R., Bedford, M. R., & Ravindran, V. (2023). Calcium nutrition of broilers: Current perspectives and challenges. Animals. [11] Dwi Cahyono, P., & Nurul, H. (2022). Efektifitas probiotik sebagai pengganti antiprobotik growth promotor (AGP) pada unggas. Jurnal Penelitian, Fakultas Peternakan, Universitas Islam Malang. [12] Guedes, P. T., Oliveira, B. C. E. P. D., Manso, P. P. A., Caputo, L. F. G., Cotta-Pereira, G., & Pelajo-Machado, M. (2014). Histological analyses demonstrate the temporary contribution of yolk sac, liver, and bone marrow to hematopoiesis during chicken development. PLoS ONE, 9(3), 1–15. [13] Irham, M. (2012). Pengaruh penggunaan enceng gondok (Eichornia crassipes) fermentasi dalam ransum terhadap persentase karkas, nonkarkas dan lemak abdominal itik lokal jantan umur delapan minggu [Skripsi, Universitas Sebelas Maret Surakarta]. [14] Jihad, A. (2025). Pengaruh ekstrak daun kelor terfermentasi melalui air minum terhadap persentase offal eksternal broiler [Skripsi, Universitas Udayana]. [15] Prabayanti, I. A. S. T., Dewi, G. A. M. K., & Wijana, I. W. (2022). Pengaruh ekstrak kulit bawang putih (Allium sativum) pada air minum terhadap persentase eksternal offal broiler umur 4 minggu. Peternakan Tropika, 2(1). [16] Pratiwi, H., & Firmawati, A. (2019). Embriologi hewan. Universitas Brawijaya Press. [17] Radhitya, A. (2014). Pengaruh pemberian tingkat protein ransum pada fase grower terhadap pertumbuhan puyuh (Coturnix coturnix japonica). Students e Journal, Universitas Padjadjaran. [18] Raillah, H. S., Dewi, G. A. M. K., & Wirapartha, M. (2021). Pemberian tepung kulit kerang dalam ransum terhadap persentase offal eksternal ayam Isa Brown umur 100 minggu. Jurnal Peternakan Tropika, 9. [19] Soeparno. (2009). Ilmu teknologi daging. Gadjah Mada University Press. [20] Suryanti, N. L. A., Dewi, G. A. M. K., & Dewantari, M. (2019). The effect of use of red dragon skin (Hylocereus polyrhizus) fermented in the break of external offal broiler. Jurnal Peternakan Tropika, 7. [21] Tribowo, A., Wati, N. E., & Suhadi, M. (2021). Pengaruh penambahan air perasan daun buah pepaya (Carica papaya L.) dalam air minum terhadap performa ayam broiler. Jurnal Wahana Peternakan, 5(1), 32–40. [22] Utari, G. A. D. D., Ariana, I. N. T., & Mahardika, I. G. (2025). Kualitas fisik daging itik Bali jantan yang diberi pakan konsentrat protein limbah peternakan ayam (KPLA). Peternakan Tropika, 13(2), 249–261. [23] Wahju, J. (2004). Ilmu nutrisi ternak unggas (5th ed.). Gadjah Mada University Press. [24] Wahju, J. (2004). Ilmu nutrisi ternak unggas (5th ed.). Gadjah Mada University Press. [25] Widelitz, R. B. (2019). Morpho regulation in diverse chicken feather formation. Developmental Dynamics, 248(8), 666–676. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/dgd.12584 [26] Wiriani. (2023). Pengaruh pemberian ekstrak biji pepaya (Carica papaya L.) melalui air minum terhadap persentase eksternal offal broiler umur 4 minggu [Skripsi, Universitas Udayana]. [27] Wulandari, R. (2014). Struktur dan perkembangan rangka embrio ayam (Gallus gallus domesticus) [Skripsi, Universitas Gadjah Mada]. https://etd.repository.ugm.ac.id/home/detail_pencarian/73657?utm_source.